Monday, September 30, 2019

Compare And Contrast Japan And China Essay

China and Japan, both with thousand years of ancient culture and civilization history, share numerous similarities and differences. Confucianism is a collectivist based value system which embraces a set of moral codes of behavior designed to regulate the relationships between ruler and subject, father and son, friend and neighbor, husband and wife, and brother and brother. Even though both China and Japan employed Confucianism as the state ideology, there were many features of Confucianism in the two countries that shaped each country’s societies. China and Japan isolated themselves from the rest of the world in the beginning, but later on, the differences in response to the pressure from the West led them to different paths. This essay is going to compare and contrast two main differences between Japan and China, which include a cultural legacy known as Confucianism and the response to the West in 19th century. To begin with, Confucianism stresses particular social relationsh ips, but it is also a universal moral code, which makes it easy for the Japanese adoption. However, the Japanese transform it in their way and to a certain degree Confucian concepts are applied to relationships carrying a different meaning from those in China. At its most basic of culture, Chinese morality is founded on the family structure, with the most important social ties being that of parent and child and its blood-related family clans. The Japanese moral system is founded on a set of kinship relations that go beyond blood ties or extend to members who have no blood relationship, with the primary tie being that between leader and follower. Therefore, Japanese political culture is more group-oriented, more tribal, or more radical. Another example is the paired concepts of loyalty and filial piety that characterize the two cultures. These two values are related: both are the duties we owe to our superiors. Loyalty is our duty to our ruler, and filial piety is our duty to our parents. Both came into the Japanese culture as part of the Confucian influence, but they are treated differently in China and Japan. In China, â€Å"filial piety or reverence for parents is the most important of these  relationships and the one that binds the Confucian moral system together. Confucianists assume that if everyone internalizes such ‘family values,’ society will come into tune with heaven, and harmony, contentment, and prosperity will ensue as a matter of course† (Miller, John H). When there is a conflict between the two, our duty to our parents usually outweighs that to the ruler. In Japan, the Japanese do not acknowledge this tension or contradiction: one is a filial child only if one gives loyal service to one’s superior. Therefore, loyalty is expressed in unquestioning slave-like obedience and implies total selfless devotion to one’s lord. In other words, loyalty in the Japanese culture usually take precedence over filial piety. In addition, harmony, rather than competition, is one of the core Confucian ideas and the concept that helps to shape both Chinese and Japanese political cultures. Both China and Japan are highly â€Å"collectivistic† societies under the Confucian influence, in which each person is born and melt into a collective entity either family, clan, group, society, or state, each person knows his or her status and identity in relation to others in social relations, and each person is required to conform to the collective values. However, in Japan, more emphasis is placed on group orientation and loyalty to the group, for it is the group that gives one a social identity, provides a feeling of security, and receives the rewards of service. Not only the household and the village but also colleagues, fellow students, neighbors, and even industrial sectors constitute the important groups from which one acquires social status and identity. The Second Imperialism of the 19th century, driven by both America and Western Europe profoundly affected Africa and Asia. In Asia, both Japan and China were impacted, but in very different ways. Japan was able to ward off the threats of imperialism, and emerge as a world power. China, on the other hand, suffered the loss of sovereignty and status. The elites of both countries responded to the challenges posed by Western penetration by initiating reforms. In Japan, the Meiji regime chose to remake themselves entirely through Westernization, while in China, the Qing government chose instead to hold on to traditional Chinese values and institutions. China’s efforts at reform, the Self-Strengthening Movements, was in essential traditional answers to traditional problems. There was no significant, large-scale industrialization in China, and they displayed  little willingness to abandon traditional imperial institutions that were incapable to dealing with contemporary problems. Chinese cultural pride was just too deeply ingrained, so much so that it became an impediment, blinding many Chinese and preventing them from recognizing the need to learn from the barbarians and for fundamental change. On the other hand, Japanese efforts to adopt foreign technology to meet their military and industrial needs were largely successful. The Meiji regime, however, saw that military technology and industrialization could not be separated from institutional structures that had produced and accompanied such developments in the West, and showed little hesitation in transforming or abolishing traditional institutions in favor of those that could give Japan the modernity it needed to survive. Overall, the Meiji Restoration was a tremendous success for the Japanese and allowed them to join the ranks of Western new imperial powers. Both nations pursued the goal of a â€Å"rich nation and strong army† as the way to modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement in C hina and the Meiji Restoration in Japan. However, most of the reforms in the Self-Strengthening Movement belonged to the surface layer of modernization which included manufacturing technology of military and light and heavier industries, and certain infrastructures. The reforms in the Meiji Restoration not only replicated the material manufacturing technology, but also touched the inner and deeper parts of Western civilization that included political structures and legal systems, and Western types of philosophy, culture and ways of thinking. China and Japan, due to geographical proximity, historical, and cultural ties, have many similarities and differences. Confucianism played a very important part in both Chinese and Japanese, but their different understandings in many same concepts lead to different cultures and societies. In addition, during the nineteenth century, facing the pressure of the West, different responses changes the fate of China and Japan. Chinese responded to the Opium Wars and western intrusion through a combination of challenging the West, embracing traditional ways, challenging the Qing Dynasty, or seeking moderate reforms. Japan, though never conquered, responded to the intrusion of West quite differently. Rather than looking to the past, the Japanese sought to emulate the West. During the Meiji Restoration, Japan modernized. Japan sought to avoid China’s fate by adopting aspects of Western culture and faced a turning point in its history. Works Cited Miller, John H. â€Å"Belief Systems and Religions.† Modern East Asia: An Introductory History. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2008. 19. Print.

Ethnography †Amish Religion Essay

In the modern era of technological and scientific advances such important life values as morality, feelings, and faith in particular still play key part in life of many people throughout the whole world. Regardless of various religions practiced globally, the Amish people attract attention of many scholars, scientists, and sociologists owing to their distinctive traditions, rituals, and uniqueness. The background of Amish religion goes back to the 16th century. At that time a Swiss pope Jacob Ammann who is referred to now as the creator of Amish church left the Mennonites, the Protestant community because they poorly observed the rules of the main postulates. At the turn of the 18th century the adherents of Jacob Ammann have set active process of migration from Germany, Switzerland, and Austria to Northern America. Arriving to this new undiscovered world they organized about fifty churches to worship their religion. A considerable number of immigrants have chosen such states as Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Ontario to be their final destination point as they were characterized by the most favorable climate (BELIEVE Religion Information Source). The Amish people concelebrate every other Sunday in private houses. Typically, men and women sit in different rooms during the church service not to disturb each other. In addition, the service is conducted by the pope, a pair of ministers, and a deacon. It has been historically established that women do not participate in managing and implementing services and rituals. As the Amish people traditionally reside in agricultural communities of about 150 people, they think that such human feelings as arrogance and pride are the grave crimes generated in a growing store of knowledge an individual may have. To stay away from this trouble and raise their offsprings in an environment of absolute obedience and submission, Amish people have set their own education system where their kids stop attending school after the 8th grade due to the idea that extra knowledge may harm their perception of the world and incite such unwelcome reactions as arrogance and ambitiousness. The followers of Amish religion believe that the understanding and knowledge obtained during high school and college is totally worthless for the agricultural activity of their community. (Wikipedia). In fact, the representatives of Amish religion still possess characteristic features that vividly prove their strict submission to their major postulates. The following are key points of Amish religion: †¢ Faith and family connections. The Amish consider religion to be closely associated with families as it the foundation for emotions, attitudes, formation of the consciousness, understanding of the world, etc. They believe that faith helps them to be more openhanded, kind-hearted, sincere, and responsible. The Amish are characterized by their own set of priorities established during their adolescence. This includes faith as priority number one, followed by family, agricultural activity, local community activities, and communication. The head of the family is in most cases a man who is responsible for financial and other important issues. Women are in charge of children upbringing and organizational issues of family life such as visiting guests, traveling within the Amish communities, etc. Amish women enjoy quilting and are very famous for it. Typically, family members keep in touch with each other even after children leave their home and create new family. The marriages are only allowed among the members of the Amish community. During their lives most of the Amish have only one spouse and never divorce. They consider faithlessness as a crime and therefore are rarely involved in cheating. (BELIEVE Religion Information Source). †¢ Refusal from technology is motivated not by individual choice but rather by the fact that it may serve as a reason of negative aspects of human behavior such as egotism, idleness, etc. Machinery or, to be more correct, the absence of it, has always been vital question in Amish agricultural community. They believe that technological innovations may lead to ambitiousness and indifference in terms of agricultural duties and responsibilities of community representatives. Playing a key role in scientific development, technology is not accepted among Amish people as it may turn the people away from their roots and origin. Electricity is also prohibited as well as public transportation, telephones, home appliances, etc. In fact, there are several advantages of lighting candles, riding horses, and farming. At the outset, agricultural products grown in the Amish community are organic, as they never include chemical fertilizers. (Wikipedia) †¢ Social behavior. Owing to their cultural and religious beliefs Amish people remain isolated from the rest of the world. They try to minimize their communication with strangers, foreigners, and people unknown to them. However, it doesn’t mean that they will stay away from you and let you die without giving you a hand. Amish people enjoy serenity, freedom, quietness, and peacefulness of their surrounding environment. Therefore, they usually laugh and speak quietly, walk slowly, and never offend each other. It is not typical for Amish community to use cameras because it may be taken as an interference of one’s private life. They believe that posing for cameras bring harm to their worldview. It is also rude to ask questions about beliefs, habits, and customs. Amish people appreciate respect, privacy, and space. Therefore they might not be excited to let the person in if s/he enters their territory without knocking the door (or in some way notifying about the arrival) or feeding their horse/pig. About, Inc. ) †¢ Problematic issues. The biggest challenge of being the representative of Amish religion is the separation from the rest of the world that may be both useful and harmful for the person and the community. Leaving school at the age of 15 is also somewhat unreasonable due to the fact that the knowledge gained during high school and college may become very practical in farming, agriculture, and daily routine work. Newly invented equipment can make the lifestyle of Amish people considerably easier giving them more time for church services and communication within their community. More often than not, foreigners perceive Amish people as aboriginal creatures and therefore in most cases it is very complicated to establish contact between each other. Also, non-Amish people have different points of view in terms of education, sociology, lifestyle, politics, etc, which also aggravates the situation and turns Amish away from them. One more significant challenge of living away from society is emergency cases. Typically, it takes long time before rescue services or police receive information about some emergency cases. Recently, more and more cases have been reported when parents sexually abuse their daughters, brothers-in-law sexually harass their sisters, etc. According to Amish postulates, no aggression should be present and no punishment included. However, in case of crime, the accused person should be isolated from Amish community for a certain period of time depending on the cruelness and immensity of the crime. In conclusion, it would be rather well to note that Amish religion comprises unique traits that have both negative and positive effect on their lifestyle as any other religion in the world. Reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amish http://pittsburgh.about.com/cs/pennsylvania/a/amish_country.htm http://mb-soft.com/believe/txn/amish.htm http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10570c.htm

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Especially the French Revolution and Napoleonic Era

French Revolution/ Napoleonic Era WHEN THE KING TOOK FLIGHT * National â€Å"Constituent† Assembly, the new assembly not only set to work drawing up France’s first constitution, but engineered a wholesale transformation of French political and social structures that went far beyond anything most of them had requested in their grievance lists. * During the  French Revolution, the  Legislative Assembly  was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to September 1792.It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making between the periods of the  National Constituent Assembly  and of the  National Convention. * The Legislative Assembly was driven by two opposing groups. The members of the first group were primarily moderate members of the bourgeoisie that favored a  constitutional monarchy, represented by the  Feuillants, who felt that the revolution had already achieved its goal. [1]  The second group was the democratic faction, for whom the  king  could no longer be trusted, represented by the  new  members of the  Jacobin club. 2]  This group claimed that more revolutionary measures were necessary. [ * the citizens of Varennes had been asked to elect their own municipal and regional governments and to participate directly in the day-to-day implementation of new laws * Louis XVI fleeing the very constitution he had sworn to defend * Appearance of soldiers in Varennes had led to enormous tensions. We know that this action was part of the general movement of troops intended to protect the king’s escape, a conspiracy in which Bouille was intimately involved. The king’s flight had dangerous conspiracies involving foreign soldiers and perhaps foreign armies * The night the king suddenly appeared in a small town in northeastern France is arguable one of the most dramatic and poignant moments in the entire French Revolution. * Local inhabitants=reshape their lives * Louis’ most perva sive impact on the train of events probably came less from what he did than from what did not do: from his very lack of leadership, his indecision and inconsistency WATERLOO: JUNE 18, 1815 The errors made by Napoleon and other French commanders during the Waterloo campaign were severe, indeed perhaps even decisive * His own destiny was almost more important to Napoleon than the thousands—and finally millions—of lives that were lost in the course of his pursuit of it * Hundred Days (stage four) FRENCH REVOLUTION APP * Directory, a body of five directors that held executive power in France

Managing Operations, Information

Managing Operations, Information, and Knowledge of Gate Gourmet Words 3,000 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract 4 1. 0 Introduction 5 2. 0 About Gate Gourmet 5 3. 0 Systems that enable efficient use of input resources and their impact on output of goods and services supplied by Gate Gourmet 6 3. 1 Transformation Process 6 3. 2 Production Techniques 6 1. Cuisine Sous-Vides 6 2. Hot Filling 6 3. Modified Atmosphere Packing 6 4. Food Safety Checks and Assurance Systems 7 5.Gate Serve Provisioning services 7 6. Post Flight Aircraft Stripping 7 2. Existence of Trade-offs within Gate Gourmet and challenges faced by following this approach 8 4. 0 Supply Chain Management issues and supplier selection 9 4. 1 Supply Chain 9 2. Supply Chain Management 9 3. Impact of integrated system in the management of suppliers and supplier selection 9 1. Alpha Flight Group 9 2. Pourshins 10 3. Supplair 10 4. DeSter 10 5.Potmstudios 11 6. Harmony 11 4. Recommendations for less advanced suppliers to establish con sistent standard of operations with the supply chain activities 11 5. 0 ERP System 12 5. 1 Scala 12 1. E-Gatematrix 12 1. Challenges faced by the company in implementing ERP System 12 2. ERP implementation problems and solutions 13 1. Galley Planning 13 2. Complications of Data 13 3. Business Intelligence and Reporting 14 4.Selection of menus according to the passenger mix 14 6. Huge information used by Gate Gourmet to deliver their service 14 1. Human tacit and implicit knowledge is essential to make sense of hard statistical information and the same is used for enhancing performance 14 7. Conclusion 16 References 17 Abstract A biggest challenge for the companies in today’s world is the managing operations, information and knowledge throughout the organisation. Each and every company is struggling for the management of operations, information and knowledge in the competitive market.The whole production and delivery process, challenges with the existence of trade-off, supply chain activities, ERP, and human tacit and implicit knowledge to deal with the processes are discussed in this part with reference to the Gate gourmet Company. Managing Operations, Information, and Knowledge of Gate Gourmet 1. Introduction Each company wants to sustain in the highly competitive market. For this, the companies are involved in the management of operations, information and knowledge throughout the organisation, which has now days become of utmost importance.The company go for integration with other firms to improve their processes and for the application of software, which are used uniformly by the different departments of the organisation and their suppliers as well as customers. In the business of catering, providing right quantities at right time at the right place is of greatest importance. For the achievement of the goal, the company that enable efficient use of input resources to generate the effective output uses those systems. The company in integration with th e other companies to provide the quality meals uses new production techniques.Also the supplier selection plays a critical role in supply chain management process. The company to improve their processes uses the ERP system and human tacit and implicit knowledge. In this part of study, all these activities are discussed with the case of Gate Gourmet. 2. About Gate Gourmet The Gate Group brand was introduced in early 2008 after several acquisitions after being founded in the year 1992. The company offers catering and last mile provisioning for airlines and railroads, lounges and business aviation. The company’s main force of secondary revenue is onboard retail operations (Gate gourmet). . Systems that enable efficient use of input resources and their impact on output of goods and services supplied by Gate Gourmet 1. Transformation Process It includes the processes, which converts the input to the output by adding value to the product. There are two categories of input resources i. e. transformed resources which are converted from input to the output and include materials and information, and transforming resources which helps to convert input to the output and include facilities like buildings, equipments, process technology and the staff (NSW Government). 2.The new production techniques are used by Gate Gourmet to provide the meals of restaurant quality and also manageable in terms of cost, quality, service and safety. These production techniques help in efficient use of input resources. 1. Cuisine Sous-Vides The company to achieve amazing flavour and texture uses this technique. This technique relies on temperature-controlled circulator in which the food is vacuum-sealed and cooked in a precisely controlled water bath. As the method is very easy to learn, it helps in better control and reasonable results every time (PolyScience). 2. Hot FillingThis technology is very easy to handle even by unskilled workers. This high temperature helps in the sterilisat ion of bottles and other equipments to maintain the high quality standards. 3. Modified Atmosphere Packing The technology helps in expanding the shelf life of fresh food products. The modified atmosphere packing technology substitutes the atmospheric air inside the package with the protective gas mix which ensures that the product will stay fresh for long time. The company used this technology for packing of red meats, fruits and vegetables. This helped to achieve the minimal spoilage of the input resources and lowers the costs.The company has established sophisticated machineries for this purpose (Modified Atmosphere Packaging). 4. Food Safety Checks and Assurance Systems The company voluntarily follows HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) to ensure food safety. The company inspects every vehicle that delivers the raw materials, check by digital probe food temperatures during the production and delivery process, temperature checks on every batch food; every dish and surf ace is cleaned while food preparation, this helps in production and delivery of food that is clean and safe (Gate Gourmet). . Gate Serve Provisioning services Gate Serve, a subsidiary of Gate Gourmet, helps in assembling soda drawers, packing silverware, provisioning packaged food items, and aircraft watering. This helps in efficiently responding to changes of new procedures in the marketplace (Gate Serve). The provisioning of items helped in making the trip safe and comfortable for the passengers. For these services, the company has installed cooling systems, onboard cameras and state-of-the-art engines. 6. Post Flight Aircraft StrippingIn the catering process, the carts are removed and taken to the flight kitchen and unloading and sanitisation. Using the recycling system, the trash is separated from the general waste stream and sterilised before disposal. Crockery and other reusable items are sent for dishwashing and sterilisation line (Gate Gourmet Aircraft Provisioning). 3. Exis tence of Trade-offs within Gate Gourmet and challenges faced by following this approach The tradeoffs between economising and flexibility were noticed within the organisation.The reduction in expenditures helped the company to gain the competitive advantage whereas; the flexibility needs to be applied to meet the last minute demand of the clients, sometimes, which may cause wastage of food products. With the conflicting demands of the organisation, trade-offs were considered within the organisation. The trade-offs are considered for balancing the transformation process. Main challenge in front of managers is to maximise the cost reduction with flexibility and the dilemma cannot be completely eliminated.The stabilisation mechanism needs to be established within the organisation to meet the uncertain demands and to maintain stability in the production and delivery process. Also, the company had dilemma of trade-offs between making and buying of certain products. Buying of food product s included outsourcing to the other company. But the challenge was that the making led to increase in costs and buying which will lead to outsourcing has hidden costs that will diminish its advantages with time. And, at the time when Texas Pacific bought the company, it was under enormous stress to cut down its costs (The Guardian, 2005). . Supply Chain Management issues and supplier selection 1. Supply Chain Supply chain includes procurement of raw materials from the suppliers, conversion of raw materials to intermediate goods, and then finally to finished products. It also includes the distribution of it to the customers. Three kinds of flows exist in supply chain i. e. material, information and finance (Ganeshan R & Harrison T, 1995). Upstream refers to the activities that take place before the supply phase. And, downstream refers to the activities that take place after the supply phase.IFx system was used to integrate the whole supply chain (AirlineHubBuzz, 2012). 2. Supply Chai n Management Effective supply chain management is the coordination between the various players in the chain and each channel member operates independently (Ganeshan R & Harrison T, 1995). 3. Impact of integrated system in the management of suppliers and supplier selection The company goes on maintaining the relationship with those suppliers who can meet quick and flexible supply in respect to the demand changes, deliver consistently and on time with high degree of mutual understanding and trust (Acorn live: 22). . Alpha Flight Group Alpha provided full catering and provisioning services in Amsterdam. Gate Gourmet intended maximum growth and operational flexibility with Alpha through its integrated system. The company aimed to serve 80 peak season flights a day with Alpha (aircraftinteriorsinternational. com). 2. Pourshins Pourshins, a fully integrated partner provides the tools required for supply chain model including sourcing and procurement, asset management and food and beverage logistics (Pourshins. com). The challenge in front of the company was to reduce the LEAN’s supply chain management cost, which was rising.The integration challenge was to merge the two teams of employees in the United States and understanding the Gate Gourmet’s existing warehousing, distribution and software functions (Andersen, 2008: 29). But at the same time, the integrated system helped to aggregate purchase volumes, which resulted in lowering of costs, optimisation of products and services for the total value (Pourshins. com). 3. Supplair The company designed food including fresh food preparation and packaged food to keep them safe, appealing, and requires minimum handling.The challenge in front of company with the integrated system was to review the food offered for the crew consumption and introduce the same within four weeks for Easy Jet. The elements for the key success with the integrated system were the proven web-based ordering system, which was easy to use and the excellent distribution supply chain (Supplair. com). 4. deSter Gate Gourmet selected deSter as its supplier, deSter being leading supplier in service solutions across all aircraft cabins. To win the competitive advantage over the other bidders, the tender was in the favour of Gate Gourmet with Etihad Airways.This was because of technical know-how and production capacities of deSter (deSter. com). 5. Potmstudios The company offers design for packaging, cutlery, food and beverage service ware and passenger facilities for the in-flight services. The positive implication was the best computer aided design software, which was used by the company for the fast and accurate designs (Potmstudios. com). 6. Harmony The company is totally integrated airline service provider and involved in the designing of amenity kits.Harmony provides tailor-made solutions for enhancing the passengers’ comfort on board. The operational excellence of the company helped in managing the quality of the service (Harmonyonboard. com). 4. Recommendations for less advanced suppliers to establish consistent standard of operations with the supply chain activities First of all, for implementing integrated system, the less advanced organisations analyse their business processes. It helps in the modernisation of processes during the time of changes.It is quite easier for the centralised organisations to implement the integrated system. Secondly, balancing of work designed according to the requirements of the customers is of prime importance. The software should be configured before use. Lastly, the company needs to establish a system to convert the existing data into the integrated one. For this, the company may have to move for data migration planning like identification of data, data templates generation, and deciding migration interrelated set-ups and reporting policies.This will help the less advanced suppliers to gain the competitive advantage and will also help in modernisation. The genuine trick for the integration is the free flow of information, cooperation and respecting each business’s independence (Andersen, 2008: 30). 5. ERP System ERP system is the organisation wide network for harmonising the resources, information and functions of a business. It is the modern extension of MRP1 (Materials Requirement Planning), MRP11 (Manufacturing Resource Planning), and CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacturing).It helps in communicating with the customers and the suppliers to improve the quality of supply chain management (Acorn live: 19). 1. Scala system Scala is the ERP software and support ERP processes. This system was exercised by the company to cover the maximum business processes of catering operations. 1. E-Gatematrix The real-time data was fed into the Scala system through ‘e-gatematrix’ system, which is the web-interface system for capturing data. 2. Challenges faced by the company in implementing ERP System 1.The company has to face the challenges due to demand fluctuations- As food has to be prepared just before 12 to 24 hours before departure, the demand keep on fluctuating till the last moment. The ‘just-in-time’ delivery after the preparation and supply of food with the last minute fluctuations become difficult and challenging (Fidanza). All the last minute changes using ERP systems become difficult sometimes. 2. The company has to re fix the schedules with flight delays- The whole process of delivery becomes cumbersome with flight delays.All the data communication through ERP in rush becomes complex. 3. ERP implementation problems and solutions 1. Galley Planning Problem-With the technological support, galley planning becomes time consuming process. Solution-Galley Planning System (GP4) of the e-gate solutions can be easily incorporated into other material planning systems to increase the precision of the data. It leads to the fuel-cost impact analysis, automatic publishing of packing instruct ions and the online communication of changes to the supply chain (e-Gate Solutions). 2.Complications of Data Problem- There was complications of data and their application using the e-marketplace application. Solution- The company replaced it with ePix application to improve the order search capabilities and for the simplification of the data (e-Gate Solutions). 3. Business Intelligence and Reporting Problem-The reporting of real-time sales and analysis was difficult with ERP implementation. Solution-Onboard Retail Technology (TS4) was selected for reporting functions, as TS4 was able to reconcile the real-time sales to inventory.It was also used to identify the passengers’ buying trends (e-Gate Solutions). 4. Selection of menus according to the passenger mix Problem- The main challenge in front of the company was to reduce the inventory using ERP, when the menus were fixed but the types of passengers’ keeps on changing even six hours before take-off. Solution-The Pour shins’ trademark forecaster system for food helped to build new menus and reduce the inventory and costs (e-Gate Solutions). 6. Huge information used by Gate Gourmet to deliver their service 1.Human tacit and implicit knowledge is essential to make sense of hard statistical information and the same is used for enhancing performance Inventory management includes the processes involved in maintenance of optimal number of goods and services to avoid over and under inventory. The company focuses on inventory management through state-of-the-art software. Gate Gourmet collects the necessary data from state-of-the-art software with the help of Pourshins for inventory management (Gate Gourmet). The experienced personnel are hired by the company for the use of different software’s through their tacit and implicit knowledge.The main difference between tacit knowledge and implicit knowledge is that the implicit knowledge can be codified but it is impossible to codify tacit knowle dge (Toolbox. com, 2008). Suppose a flight from Taiwan to New York, may stop at Los Angeles for 2-3 hours, the company will be required to unload the trash items in this time and have to load the 5 tons of new food with cutlery and other equipments. But the challenge now appears when the last minute passengers come up and like to have the menu according to the menu of the airlines. Also, the special meals like low fat meals are required by certain group of passengers.Through the use of software, it is easy to get the statistics but the right quantities are decided by experts so as to keep the wastage and costing minimum. Here comes the use of human tacit knowledge used by experts for the inventory management, Through the use of tacit knowledge the over-catering and under-catering is avoided. As the production and delivery of more meals than actual required is both the loss for airlines as well as for the Gate Gourmet. The software covers almost all the business processes involved in inventory management.The delays in flight arrivals upset the work schedules. It becomes crucial for the company to provide right quantities at the right place to the right person. The dedicated team members take action with flexibility and quickly to achieve the goal. The costs have reduced to the great extent with the management of inventories through the tacit knowledge of the staff (Donna, 2009). Hands do the majority of food preparation, which is also a time consuming process. The inventory of finished stock of goods needs to be kept ready with the demand fluctuations.They to reduce the wastage at the bottom level use the culinary expertise and implicit knowledge. The culinary trends and expertise is used to design the menus as per the trends. This has helped the company in gaining the competitive advantage and food and journey becomes enjoyable by the customers. Inventory forecast is a mix of statistical data with the use of human tacit and implicit knowledge. The company has been using the vast information and statistics, which finally gets evaluated by the experts to decide the optimal level of inventory.As a result, it helps in improving the function of the processes; reduce inventory wastage, optimal quantity ordering to the suppliers. 7. Conclusion Concluding the whole discussion, it is very imperative for the company to go for managing operations, information and knowledge to survive in the market cutthroat competition. The company has to face various challenges for the achievement of aspirations. Besides tough times faced by Gate Gourmet, the company has been successful in the administration of operations, information and knowledge. For this, the company has deployed experienced staff all over the organisation.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Back Pain Causes And Effects Biology Essay

Back Pain Causes And Effects Biology Essay According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke (NINDS) back pain is considered one of the most common disabling conditions, being the second most common neurological disorder after headache in the USA and affecting almost 60% of the general population. The essay discusses in details and aided by the latest studies, the various causes of this disease including obesity, occupational hazards, pregnancy, sports and the natural aging process. Also, utilizing the best diagnostic approaches to reach to the proper cause of the back pain and therefore the appropriate modality of treatment. Finally and to sum the issue, I would like to emphasize on the best line of treatment in back pain which is the prevention, elimination of the potential causes, risk factors and the need of more research and for better management of back pain. Back Pain: Causes and Effects Back pain is considered to be the second most common neurological disorder after headache in the United States of America (USA) according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke (NINDS) in USA (2003). Nearly everybody had experienced the episode of back pain in different severity, timing, age and with variety of associated causes. Prevalence estimates suggests that 70-85 % of adults will experience low back pain during a given year and 30% will seek treatment for this problem. The health institutions are paying a large number of money treating back pain all over the world because of the high incidence of the complains and the various degree of disabilities caused by acute and chronic back pain (Andersson, 1999). To fully understand back pain, a glance of the back anatomy will be of great help. The back is a complex structure consisting of 24 small bones (vertebrae) that support the weight of your upper body and form a protective canal for the spinal cord which carries nerve signals from the brain to the rest of the body. Between each consecutive vertebra are found the shock-absorbing discs (intervertebral discs) that cushion the bones and allow the spines to bend, held all together by Ligaments, Tendons and Muscles. The lower part of the back is known as the lumbar region, which is made up of five vertebrae, known as L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5. The lumbar supports the entire weight of the upper body (plus any extra weight that you are carrying), and it is under constant pressure, particularly when bending, twisting and lifting (Smeltzer, S & Bare, B, 2000). Though the presence of huge number of literatures and researches has been conducted to discuss the causes and effects of back pain, there has still been a matter of controversy among medical researchers. However, the causes of back pain were categorized according to the effects with the associated signs and symptoms the victims describe, as well as the physical fitness of the targets. In fact, most back problems are probably the result of a combination of factors. Some factors, such as family histo ry, aren’t preventable. You can control other factors, such as weight, fitness and flexibility, by changing your lifestyle. This essay will discuss the main causes and effects of back pain, but it will also put on the light on the associated signs and symptoms, as well as the most common treatments used.

Censorship is a form of protection Essay Example for Free

Censorship is a form of protection Essay Censorship applies to magazines, videos, films, radio, music, computer games and television. Censorship is a form of protection, instead of stopping you from being robbed like the police force, censorship protects you and your families from pornographic, violent, bloody, rude, vulgar and racist programming. It regulates the broadcasting time of programmes with adult content after the 9o’clock-water shed so viewers of a younger age such as small children hopefully will not see the programme. It stops the extreme programmes such as hard core porn violent films where the gore is to extreme. That’s what censorship does now imagine television without censorship you could be flicking through the channels and neighbours could be on one the weakest link on two and f**k fest on three a nice hardcore porn film for the little ones to watch when they get home from school. Without censorship anything would go any time, So lets have a look at what’s on without censorship, the Teletubbies could have great big battles with each other or go hunting and shoot the rabbits and on an educational note they could demonstrate how to skin and gut the rabbits for the kids at home. Later on in the day the Weakest Link could become the nude Weakest Link where Anne Robinson could prance about in a PVC catsuite and give a good old S&M style spanking to the person voted the Weakest link, and I don’t think any body wants to Anne Robinson in the Buff? Later on now comes the news which could broadcast news on a what happened in Afghanistan before the war, they could have show live battles between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance where men get limbs blown off, mutated bodies of captured prisoners and worse not something you would really want to watch real people really dying over tea or any other time for that matter. At about 7:30 say a do it yourself programme presented by Carol Smiley where you dab your hand at DIY torture with expert guidance from Laurence Llewelyn Bowen who shows you how to keep your victim alive for as long as possible while giving the maximum amount of pain, although having a room designed by him would be torture enough. Now at 8:00 we have time for a nice wholesome hardcore porn film before the kids go to bed. People like Osama Bin Ladin could give speeches on television saying how he was going to destroy America the Jews Britain and everyone whose not Muslim. Although this is extreme it what could happen without censorship. Censorship upholds the moral fabric of society. It stops extreme programming being aired on British television. The question is do you want young children being able to view programmes which are unsuitable for them which would scare them give them nightmares having them cry at the sight of a mutilated human body on tv watching porn and asking their parents what does f**k mean and what’s a ****. Young children’s minds are impressionable and we should do what we can to protect them from certain things until they are old enough to understand it to be able to sleep well without thinking some psychos at their window waiting to burst in with a chain saw and massacre them. Do you want to watch porn? Then watch Television X or by a porn film, which stops children from watching these types of programmes. Without censorship anything would go and it would be absolutely legal. Without censorship we would allow the decay of our society. Censorship does not hide you from the real world but simply takes the edge off by not allowing certain things to be viewed in their full detail before 9 or on television where most people do not wish to see the extreme programmes such as hardcore porn. But allows the specialist things to be purchased on video where people buy the video knowing full well the type of material it contains. Censorship is a form of protection. (2017, Sep 02).

Friday, September 27, 2019

M5 Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

M5 Reflection - Essay Example munity can occur in numerous forms and usually, organizations like libraries and zoos among others can be core players in assisting in the education of students outside the school environment (Fawcett & Shannon-Smith 2008). Parents should therefore provide their children with the opportunities to access these services, as they are beneficial to their overall studies. Most of these organizations create learning activities for the students who visit their sites but sometimes they do so without consulting the local schools first. It is important for the community and the schools to work together when improving the learning of students as through this collaboration, the excellence of the schools can be replicated in the community activities (Johnston, 2009). The community should value and have a commitment to implementing clear learning objectives, standards of a high quality, instructional strategies based on evidence and technology that has an ability to prepare the students to become successful in a complicated global community. The community should also remain ethical and should have a commitment and value in acting with fairness and integrity in order to bring ethical principles of decision-making processes while at the same time abiding by the laws and policies which govern schools. Caughy, M., Nettles, S., & O’Campo, P. (2007). Community Influences on Adjustment in First Grade: An Examination of an Integrated Process Model.  Journal of Child and Family Studies,  16(6), 819-836.

Two Opposing Perspectives on Egoism of Nietsche and Kierkegaard Essay

Two Opposing Perspectives on Egoism of Nietsche and Kierkegaard - Essay Example Nietzsche, on the other hand, might not have explicitly mentioned the atheistic foundation of his argument in his statement in Gay Science No. 304 but it is clear that he insisted that man should not be controlled by any rule or principle that restrains him from doing what he wants. Apparently, Nietzsche and Kierkegaard also differed in their views when it comes to their treatment of the ego or the individual. For Nietzsche, the individual is supreme and it is only by being so that he frees himself from the clutches of any entity that could hinder his struggle to achieve happiness. Rules that are imposed on him that tend to impede his freedom of movements must, therefore, be removed or repudiated. Kierkegaard, on the other hand, insisted that man should always consider the existence of a higher entity, God. Kierkegaard argued that man is governed by the rules of the Supreme Being and because of this there are limits to his freedom. However, it is necessary to discuss each of the key statements made by both modern philosophers in a more profound manner. The result of such discussion should clarify the opposing perspectives regarding egoism. No. 304 of Nietzsche’s Gay Science is a very explicit statement that describes the author’s personal conviction regarding the primacy of the individual. The last part of the section actually sums up in the most profound manner what he believed in. Nietzsche wrote: â€Å"I do not mean to strive with open eyes for my impoverishment; I do not like any of the negative virtues whose very essence is negation and self-renunciation.† (244) The previous sentences that led to this conclusion are highly critical of the set-up wherein man is ruled by laws that mostly pertain to activities or actions that should not be done. This results into an environment or a society in which people are restrained from undertaking efforts that they may deem as beneficial to them individually. Consequently, individuals are also depr ived of the chance to live happily according to their respective definitions of it. In the statement, Nietzsche asserts that he does not wish to live under such conditions and that he opposes all rules that results in these. Apparently, Nietzsche does not see the necessity of discussing the bases of the laws or rules which he points out as restrictive and violating of individual freedom. It is also clear that it does not matter whether such rules are secular or borne out of religious beliefs. As long as these explicitly tell man what not to do, then these deserve to be opposed. For Nietzsche, the argument against such restrictions should not be anchored on the cost-benefits analysis for society. It is in the actual effects that these produce on the individual. If such laws impede or hinder the individual, then these are not justified. It does not matter whether these are supposedly important for social order or whether these are for the common good. For Nietzsche, if it is restricti ve in essence then it is deplorable. It is quite obvious that he has made the individual as the center for all his arguments, which runs contrary to the perspectives adhered by governments and other power structures in society, whether religious or secular. If his statements are analyzed further, it would definitely appear

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Law problem Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Law problem - Article Example Although the FCC is responsible for regulating communication providers in the country, they clearly overstep their mandate when they appear to control the television channels and dictate the content that they air. The FCC cannot dictate what amount of money that these cable companies charge for fees. Subsequently, they are overstepping their mandate and these rules clearly exceed the authority given to them. Any appeal lodged against the FCC will be successful on these grounds. The FCC has a right to censor obscene or provocative language on the national radio. When Pacifica decided to broadcast, "Filthy Words†, they made that decision at their risk. The situation that they are in lies in the fact that they chose to air controversial content on the radio, without the use of censorship. Therefore, the FCC is justified in the decision that they made due to his careless conduct of the local radio station. The FCC may use its powers to suspend licenses of broadcasters who have breached indecency regulations. They may also suspend licenses, revoke licenses and deny applications for broadcast licenses based on these laws. For this reason, the FCC has the legal right to carry on the necessary proceedings against Pacifica. The prisoners were right in making a complaint against the FDA for failing to take action against the manufacturers of the drugs used in lethal injection. The procedure, however, is legal and is utilized in the execution of death row inmates. Therefore, the FDA has no authority to question the utilization of the lethal injection drug. Nevertheless, these prisoners are all death row convicts who are awaiting execution, and the standard procedure involves execution by lethal injection. Therefore, the prisoners are wrong to put up a case with the FDA, who have no jurisdiction whatsoever over the issue. Although the Sierra Club has a genuine environmental concern, the leased land from the federal government

Capital budgeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Capital budgeting - Essay Example The criteria for selection of projects is that any project evaluated having positive NPV should be undertaken. This method has the advantage of being that it recognizes the time value of money and risks associated with projected future cash flows. However, it has the limitation of not taking into account the scarcity of capital, and secondly, it’s overly simple (Baker and Kent 2005 pp. 234-86). The profitability index is also known as a cost-benefit ratio it works by ascertaining whether an investment is viable and how much profit will result from it. PI is evaluated as follows;Profitability Index = (Net Present Value + Initial Investment) / Initial InvestmentThe criteria for accepting a project is that if the PI is greater than one it should be accepted otherwise it should be rejected. Its drawbacks and advantages are similar to those of NPV (Pogue 2010 pp.86-146).IRR as investment evaluation technique is widely accepted and cushions against NPV and PI limitations. An interna l rate of return also known as the discounted cash flow rate of return offers a means to financial analysts to quantify the rates of return an investment is envisioned to bring if implemented. It is calculated NPV =∑_(n=0)^Nââ€"’Cn/ã€â€"(1+r)ã€â€"^n = 0 Which is equivalent to NPV/(1+IRR)^year) of all positive and negative cash flows While evaluating investments using IRR any project which has an internal rate of return greater than the opportunity cost of a project usually taken to be a weighted average cost of capital-WACC are accepted.

3 QUESTIONS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE and deviance Coursework - 3

3 QUESTIONS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE and deviance - Coursework Example When individuals are aware of uncertainties, they can design techniques to protect themselves (Briggs & Friedman, 2009). The desire to acquire substantial material wealth has lead many Americans achieve success through fraud and force, which has been considered smart for many years (Simon, 2008). Therefore, the American culture has assigned significant social importance to the formation of gangsters, which are aimed at robbing other people of their properties. It is apparent that the American Dream encourages deviance in the United States society. The American society is considered as comprised of two different populations. One of the two populations is made up of criminals, while the other population is made up of law-abiding individuals (Simon, 2008). The American elites served as role models to average individuals in the society. Therefore, elite deviance has influenced the non-elites to engage in criminal activities without any feeling of guilty (Simon, 2008). According to elite deviance, it is necessary for individuals to engage in criminal activities when they get an opportunity to do so (Briggs & Friedman, 2009). Inter-organizational cooperation has been involved by the elite deviance for a number of years to perform unethical and illegal acts, such as money laundering (Simon, 2008). Both non-elite and elite deviance are expected to be higher when there is more emphasis on the values that are related to the American Dream than when the culture focuses on values such as team work, spirituality, and community (Simon, 200 8). Thio, Calhoun, & Conyers (2008) define privileged deviance as a very profitable deviance that involved privileged individuals, especially those people who are relatively powerful, well educated, or wealthy. Such individuals take advantage of their high ranks and divert lots of wealth to their bank accounts as well as fund their own projects. Privileged individuals engage themselves in criminal

American women history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

American women history - Essay Example â€Å"Women are seen to have always had a rather influential role in determining the general growth and prosperity of the communities in which they happen to live in† (Taylor and Moore, 2008). Colonial North America is seen to have had two major groups of women, these are the women of European decent and the Native Indian women. These two different groups of women are seen to come from extremely different backgrounds and were affected in diverse ways by the change in gender roles. During the 16th century, European women are seen to have had very specific roles. These traditional roles primarily entailed the weaving of clothes, the preparation and serving of food and the education and raising of children. However, when colonial North American settlers first came to the New World, they were greatly appalled to discover that the Native Indian women were the ones who had been assigned all of what was considered to be manual and traditional labor according to their European standar ds. The native Indian women were responsible for the rearing of their children, conducting all the various works in and around their houses, the creation of pottery and the preparation of food while the Native Indian men were seen to be enjoying themselves by going on fishing and hunting expeditions, and the building of homes for their families. To the women European settlers, all these activities conducted by women were essentially activities that were conducted by the European noble class as leisure activities.

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Sport clothing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sport clothing - Essay Example According to NoÃŒ voa & DrăGoicea, (2015, p. 207), sport technology represents a specific type of means to recognize human interests and aims in sport. Sport technology can also refer to the ways in which athletes tend to improve their training in a competitive environment for them to enhance their overall performance. Use of technology in sports involves application of knowledge in using specialized equipment and tools and making use of the available improved technologies to perform tasks more effectively and efficiently. Sporting technologies available include, tennis rackets, pole-vault poles, golf clubs, motion capture, advanced computer stimulations and athletic sports gear such as clothing and footwear. Use of technology in sports is viewable in many perspectives. For instance, technology use exists in the assessment of athletes through biometric sensors, laser-based speed timing and a number of medical technologies. Sports teams and athletes have benefited from the use of technology through better film breakdowns for study, competitive scouting efforts, and statistical reporting. Technology assists in sports competition through instant replays and sensors that help sporting officials decide on whether a ball crosses a line into a goal. This happens in hockey punks and in soccer balls. Fans also benefit in technology through improvements in camera techniques and video display technology (Cremades & Tashman, 2014, p.183). To enhance the athlete’s performance, sports gear such as the clothing and footwear should be friendly and should be of valuable quality in terms of strength thickness, flexibility, durability and resistance to moisture. Footwear is more of a comfort and injury protection wear than a performance enhancing wear in sports. On the contrary, clothing like full body suits streamlines the athletes performance period in a competitive race. Composite tennis racket relates to sporting equipment designed to

Should the Electoral College still be in place Essay

Should the Electoral College still be in place - Essay Example This particular thesis would look back through history for examples where the electoral system on current values have failed to provide a decision based on the unanimous most popular votes achieved and hence appoint office a candidate who significantly does not hold the peoples ideology in running the country. Lastly we would succumb to the fact that prior to twentieth century the electoral system of electing the president was made by people who were the pioneers of their time and society while keeping in mind the common educational awareness in a single voter and how this method would cancel dysfunctional voting which may not be in the best interest of the United States. For matters concerning the voting system upheld by the Electoral College, there have been, for the past two centuries, excessive debates that primarily highlight the loop holes associated with this form of presidential selection. Firstly before jumping in to the jargon of as to why the Electoral College of president ial elections deems a misfit in current society we would on first note take up to the fact that what practically is the Electoral system of voting that we all so often refer to. On theoretical counts the Electoral College system of voting to claim a new head of the state is a method in which electors from every state cast their votes on potential candidates that seek to become the next president so as such the electors hold the key of who becomes the new subsequent head of the state. ... The votes casted by the American citizens is only associated with the electors of their own state hence even though votes pertaining to a hundred percent favoring either the democrats or the republicans could only and fundamentally suffice for their own states electoral representatives(Glennon; Whittaker et al). The number of electoral reps that every state acquires is a directly proportional figure to the amount of people or residents residing in it and therefore the number of electoral reps in each state varies from one another. For instance Minnesota as being a relatively bigger state than Columbia has seven more electoral votes and hence stands to a 10 to 3 ratio in comparison. The total number of electoral votes situated is five hundred and thirty eight and hence to potentially win an election a candidate must receive more than or equal to two hundred and seventy uncontested votes and effectively claim a winning spot. The voting system in every state apart from Maine and Nebrask a has a winner take all methodology on casting electoral votes as such if in any state the democratic or republic party get the majority votes then automatically the other residing votes which may not be in favor of the winning party would also be effectively transferred to the votes of the winning electoral reps. This particular policy has a major drawback concerning the fact that even though a candidate may win the most popular vote of the country it may eventually lose at the mercy of the Electoral college system. Again for instance the nominee from the democratic or republic party gets electoral votes from the majority of states but loses to small margins in larger ones like California, New

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Computers Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Computers Systems - Essay Example The PMS software provides for reservations, guest accounting, sales and catering applications, travel agent accounting, engineering management, and interfaces to central reservation and global distribution systems. The S&C software enables hotel sales staff to evaluate, reserve and invoice meetings and related events for a property. The CRS software allows hotels to coordinate, process, track, and analyze hotel room reservations at a central facility for electronic distribution to the appropriate lodging site. The CIS software allows hotels to efficiently capture and track relevant information of guests. The RMS software allows hotels to manage room rates, occupancy, and the mix of business between corporate and transient customers. The software systems run on PCs. MICROS also offers an Internet based hotel reservation service through its subsidiary called myfidelio.net. This subsidiary's service enables corporations, tourist representation services and consumers to create room reservations directly with Rydges hotel thereby bypassing third party reservation systems. MICROS market its hotel products under the MICROS-Fidelio brand name. The systems run on industry standard Intel-based PCs. The adoption of a complete software suite called Opera has led ... Opera is designed to run on PCs and large PC based servers. All the products are designed to share a common Oracle database. Opera will run under these three operating systems: Microsoft Windows(NT, 2000 and XP), IBM AIX, and Sun Solaris. The Opera software suite is deemed an important product line for Micro's continued growth in the hotel information systems market. The next generation product for European users of Fidelio Version 6.0 and 7.0 is Version 8.0, which is currently being developed in Hamburg, Germany. This product contains certain Internet based features and utilizes the Windows operating system with an Oracle database. Advantages Of GenaRes Engine: Rydges web site is "Powered by GenaRes," thus gaining seamless access to the hotel's central reservation system, providing real-time rates, availability and reservation booking capabilities to web site visitors. GenaRes' Internet booking engine system enables hotel companies to quickly and effectively implement Internet booking capabilities into their web sites without making expensive technology investments. Internet Booking Engine (Companies) are not all the Same Besides the obvious differences in the actual look and feel of the booking engine, there are many things to consider when selecting a company to provide this technology. Every hotelier wants to see GDS reservations move from expensive travel agent driven, airline system bookings to their own hotel web site and that is evident with Rydges Five Star Hotel. However, for the foreseeable future, they will continue to play a dominant role in online travel bookings. GenaRes not only provides great hotel booking engine technology, but also provides a single, easy-to-use, browser-based system that gets you into the GDS travel channel, and lets you

Cystinuria in dogs Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cystinuria in dogs - Case Study Example The structure of cystine makes it not possible to dissolve in neutral or acidic substances. Urine is little acidic and makes cystine precipitate in the urine (Canine Health Foundation 1). The effect is that some solid particles are formed in the urine. The particles may also stick together to form stones (Canine Health Foundation 1). Presence of the particles in the urinary tract may lead to blockage and sometimes becomes a threat to dog’s life. However, some dogs with the condition may not form stones. The condition has been common in males (Osbome & Lulich 1). There are various clinical signs that indicate the presence of the condition in dog. The most common challenge is difficulties in passing the urine. A clinical test when done indicates elevated concentration of cystine in the urine. The other obvious sign is pain as the dog urinates. The pain is indicated as the dog passes a small amount of urine and may be accompanied by blood (University of Sydney: Faculty of Veterinary Science 1). Sometimes the dog is unable to pass urine especially when small stones are formed that block the urinary tract. The dog may also have a poor appetite mostly because of pain. In severe cases, the bladder may rupture leading to infection in the abdomen and eventual death. There are various ways used in the diagnosis of the condition. The tests are done on the urine. The first test is known as urinalysis (Canine Health Foundation 1). The other tests are nitroprusside test and urine amino acid quantitation. The tests are done to establish the presence or absence of cystine in the urine. Moreover, there are no treatment options for the condition. However, there are various ways available to reduce the effect of the condition. One of the treatment options aims at reducing the rates of stones in the urine (Canine Health Foundation 1). The other option is to offer food with lower level of protein to reduce the amount of

Monday, September 23, 2019

Special Tools of life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Special Tools of life - Essay Example ending with their functions that is some enzymes will break molecules completely while others will break them into parts allowing other enzymes to complete the breakdown. The ability of the living things to make their own tools that enable in the daily activities by the cell can be purely pegged on the programming aspect of the information contained in the D.N.A which controls what is to be in the cell at a given period of time and performing a specific function (Lightner, 2004). The bacteria on the other hand contain enzymes that can perform specific duties with time and though they miss others they gain them in the process of mutation and the interaction of other enzymes with the molecules and the cell. It should also be noted that cell mutation affects the activities of enzymes by changing their shapes and their effectiveness in performing their specific roles; affecting the breakdown procedure /stages of some molecules and allowing accumulation of unwanted enzymes in the cell. Bacterium mutations come with different strains that can survive in various environments within the cell which with adaptation and time they develop special features, which can be treated as tools, to enable them perform their roles effectively in the new environment. Evolution theorists try to explain this as a change in the genetic information but in most case these changes impacts on destroying the important components of the cell such as the repressor gene, allowing the uncontrolled supply of enzymes. The picky and selective trait by the cell on what is let in allows the optimality of enzymes functioning within the call such that the repressor gene controls the production of a certain enzyme if the complement enzyme is available and vice versa, in a switch on/off mode. Evolution theorists highlight the process of cell mutation ignoring the specific actions and interactions of the bacteria calls and the enzymes produced to breakdown the substrate molecules; a phenomenon that

Quality Management and Continuous Improvement Uni 3 DB SA Second Week Essay

Quality Management and Continuous Improvement Uni 3 DB SA Second Week - Essay Example The information makes response from the instructor to students faster. The students, on the other hand, are able to submit assignments and papers in time. The development of the websites also allows students to access campus-based resources such as library materials, and offer online technical support. The online study experience should be designed and planned to allow relative flexibility for the students. It does not necessarily mean that classes should be set in weekly intervals. There are students who would like a daily routine too. The course outline should be put online so that all students know the relevant topics. The plan should also give material to keep students involved in the coursework. This is a proven method of improving satisfaction and in the long-run, longer student retention (Johnston, Kilion and Oomen 2005). The schedule should give time adequate for students to cover the syllabus. Since the online students are mostly busy with other activities, the time for coverage should be maximized (Aggarwal, 2003). This ensures that the quality of education offered to the student is not watered down. The availability of instructors should also be such that response to any queries as soon as possible (within 24 hours). The time zones should also be considered in planning since online studies are not limited by geographical

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Assessing Importance of School Factors Such as Racism Essay Example for Free

Assessing Importance of School Factors Such as Racism Essay A variety of material disadvantages that may confront ethnic minorities coming from working class backgrounds are they do not achieve the same level of education. The main achievers are Indian, Chinese and African students, but the lowest achievers are Turkish, Bangladeshi And Afro Caribbean students. The white working class students are the lowest achieving, which is peculiar because most sociologists are white who stereotype and label other students from different backgrounds. The main cause of underachievement in schools are cultural and language factors which sociologists clarify and focus on and are thought to be main cause of everything. Previously the spotlight has been put on what happens in school and racism in common As shown by Cecile Wright, which explains that, Asian students can also be the victims of teachers Cecile found out that regardless of the schools evident promise to equal opportunities, teachers still hold ethnocentric views they believe that British culture and English are greater. This prepared teachers to assume that they would have a poor pronunciation of English and left them out of class debates or used basic, childlike speech when speaking to them. Asian pupils also felt cut off when teachers spoken dissatisfaction of their behaviour or misread their names. Teachers saw them not as a risk but as a difficulty they could take no notice of. This resulted in that Asian pupils in particular the girls were hard-pressed to the limits and disallowed from play a part fully. Close at hand is proof of teacher racial discrimination and harmful labelling. Nevertheless study shows that pupils can take action in variety of ways. They may take action by becoming unsettling or withdrawn but pupils may decline to agree to the label and even choose to prove it incorrect by putting in hard work. Off-putting labels do not repeatedly twist into self-fulfilling prophecy Working class white pupils attain below standards and have lesser desires. There isn’t much parental support at home, which means there is low achievement and goals. Reports show that teachers have to deal with low level of behaviour and discipline in white working class schools. Nevertheless they had fewer kids on benefit programs teachers blame this on inadequate parental support at home and negative attitude that white working class parents have towards their children and their education. The life in the street for white working class can be tough for pupils which means they get used to getting intimidating and intimidate other which they pick up and use in school to cause disruptions and make it hard for other students to succeed at school. Underachievement of student of different is blamed on cultural deprivation. Few sociologists say that Afro-Caribbean families lack a close relationship to their family and therefore are extremely violent towards everything they do. Arguments explain that families aren’t very supportive towards their children and they don’t offer enough cultural capital for their children. Stereotypical views suggest those students are not deprived because of their class or because of their backgrounds. Factors like social class are important to certain ethnic minorities like Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and a considerable amount of Afro-Caribbean students, which are all working class backgrounds in which material deprivation play a main role because to find out why they achieve below the national standards. Sociologists say schools and curriculums made just for one specific group of ethnic minority gives priority to one particular ethnic minority while disregarding other ethnic groups. Some schools have curriculums, which are ethnocentric because they only give priority to English languages. The British curriculum has been described as exclusively British. In history Britain is thought to bring civilisation to ancient people are colonised. Black people as inferior weakens black children’s self esteem and Leads to them to underachieving and failing. It isn’t for sure what effects the ethnocentric study shows that black don’t really suffer from low self esteem. Wright’s study found some ethnic minority groups received poorer interaction from staff. Teachers perceptions were seem as stereotypical although Asian students were seen as good and black students were seen disruptive and disobedient. Study show that schools in cities which contain ethnic minority students were not benefitting in terms of O Levels entries because of being in low set and having to achieve high grade in order to get good results and become successful. Overall taking into consideration we can not split or label ethnicity from social classes and gender since this is really difficult matter as some of the main achieving students are from ethnic minorities so for that reason there isn’t a connection here so we can’t make statements or come to conclusions as to what the association among ethnic groups and schools actually are. Pupils can refuse to accept negative classing and teacher expectations. Sociologists can’t come to a conclusion to explain what occurs between teacher and students or what takes place in different ethnic groups related to education. Students live up to roles they are given but can try to resist the labels and getting put behind by carrying out what is thought of them to do or do what they want to do and achieve good education and become successful.

Human Physical Appearance and Women Essay Example for Free

Human Physical Appearance and Women Essay Throughout these moments in time, the term beauty has slipped out of control and become something utterly dissimilar. The significance of beauty has developed into something so unappealing, so unpleasant, so repugnant, that even now society is coming to the apprehension that the way they are portraying the description of beauty is erroneous. Over time, ‘beauty’ has evolved to something rather peripheral. Being beautiful is turning into an undesirable act, that most girls will go into extremes, just to get a sense of feeling ‘beautiful. ’ Although beauty is now considered something by which your looks will define, during Greek times â€Å"beauty was a virtue: a kind of excellence. Person’s then were assumed to be what we now have to call – lamely, enviously – whole persons. If it did occur to the Greeks to distinguish between a person’s â€Å"inside† and â€Å"outside†, they expected that inner beauty would be matched by beauty of the other kind† (313, Sontag). Nevertheless, there was once a time where beauty was interpreted or described as something internal, unlike now, beauty goes more towards the looks. â€Å"Beautiful† people have lots going on for them. They are more confident, make more money, and get promoted faster than their â€Å"less attractive† colleagues. But for the career – driven women, beauty is a no-win situation; the public wants you to be attractive, but, at the same time, not so beautiful that it is off-putting. People might say that looks shouldn’t matter, but in the real world, they do. Women try so hard to look their best, and at the same time, feel their best. Women struggle a lot in trying to â€Å"fit in† to what society sees as being beautiful. Women nowadays alter their body parts, faces, and their diets in order to feel satisfied with themselves. A universal obsession that girls have been approaching with is that that they must be required to look a certain way to be thought of as pretty. Girls look up to celebrities and models and see how skinny, scrawny, almost skeletal, and undernourished they are and they get this idea that they must look like that in order to be noticed. A widespread trend that has been going around has been that of the name anorexia and bulimia. Starving yourself, or eating excessively and then purging – girls see it as something they must do in order to feel good about themselves. They glimpse these famous figures with their collarbones showing, thigh gaps, small waists, and they get this state of mind that they must achieve that to feel beautiful. Society and mass media are barraging women with images that portray what is considered to be the ideal body. Such standards of beauty are almost completely unattainable for most women; a majority of the models displayed on television and in advertisements are well below what is considered healthy body weight. Mass medias use of such unrealistic models sends an implicit message that in order for a woman to be considered beautiful, she must be unhealthy. And this is what beauty is defined as in our time. Body image is a complicated aspect of the self-concept that concerns an individuals perceptions and feelings about their body and physical appearance. Females of all ages seem to be so vulnerable in this area, starting off in their pre-teen years, going along throughout their existence. Body dissatisfaction is something that goes through most women or young girls at some point in their lives. Females have been found to experience dissatisfaction with physical appearance at a much higher rate than males, and women of all ages and sizes display body image disturbance. Concern over weight and appearance related issues often surfaces in a woman’s early life. Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating patterns have been found to be an especially prevalent issue in adolescent and college females. Body image becomes a major issue as females go through puberty; girls in mid-adolescence frequently report being dissatisfied with weight, fearing further weight gain, and being preoccupied with weight loss. This is a problem that we are now facing, and because of this many girls are suffering and going through difficult times, juts to feel good about themselves. The 20th century has seen a huge upsurge in the importance placed by Western society on physical beauty, particularly for women. The fashion, cosmetics and plastic surgery industries have thrived on 20th century preoccupation with physical appearance. It is a preoccupation that affects women in every sphere, whether they choose to pander to it or not. Definitions of beauty in the 20th century, when referring to human physical  beauty, are nearly always constructed in terms of outward appearance and sexual attractiveness. Images in the media today project an unrealistic and even dangerous standard of feminine beauty that can have a powerful influence on the way women view themselves. From the perspective of the mass media, thinness is idealized and expected for women to be considered attractive. Images in advertisements, television, and music usually portray the ideal woman as tall, white, and thin, with a tubular body, and blonde hair. This representation that is being portrayed has been a vast difficulty that girls are coming across of. They don’t feel beautiful, thus altering their ways of eating and the way they look very drastically in order to fit in. Only a very small percentage of women in Western countries meet the criteria the media uses to define beautiful; yet so many women are repeatedly exposed to media images that send the message that a woman is not acceptable and attractive if she does not match societys ultra-thin standard of beauty. In recent years, womens body sizes have grown larger, while societal standards of body shape have become much thinner. This discrepancy has made it increasingly difficult for most women to achieve the current sociocultural ideal. Such a standard of perfection is unrealistic and even dangerous. Many of the models shown on television, advertisements, and in other forms of popular media are approximately 20% below ideal body weight, thus meeting the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. Research has repeatedly shown that constant exposure to thin models fosters body image concerns and disordered eating in many females. Almost all forms of the media contain unrealistic images, and the negative effects of such idealistic portrayals have been demonstrated in numerous studies. The mass medias depiction of women portrays a standard of beauty that is unrealistic and unattainable for a majority of women in society. Models shown in all forms of popular media are often under what is considered healthy body weight, which sends a powerful message that women must sacrifice their health to be considered attractive by societal standards. The negative effects of ultra-thin media images of women have been well documented; research has shown that females who are repeatedly exposed to and internalize the thin ideal are at greater risk to develop body image disturbance and eating pathology. Although it is clear that the media influences the way women view themselves, it is unclear how this process takes place. The social comparison theory, cultivation theory, and self-schema theory can be used to examine how media images of women come to affect the way women feel about their bodies and physical appearance. These perspectives also give some explanation for why some women show resilience to the negative effects of the media, while others are dramatically impacted. Nevertheless, beauty has become something rather disturbing and unwell. The image of beauty has been portrayed onto something so popularized that mostly all women around the world are being affected by it. Women are changing their ways and changing themselves to feel as if they fit in to what society expects of it. Beauty is still evolving, and is changing throughout the time, not for the better but for the worst.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Understanding Predictors of Sexually Coercive Behaviour

Understanding Predictors of Sexually Coercive Behaviour Abstract Purpose: In order to end or at least improve education and reduce sexual coercion, it is crucial to identify the variables that play a part in such behaviour. Method: One hundred and thirty students (57 female and 73 males) ranging in age from 18 to 26 were randomly approached at one of three university campuses and completed a questionnaire battery. Results: Overall 91.7% of respondents reported to have never been sexually coercive. Logistic regression analysis, using a dichotomised criterion of coercion, established that frequent pornography and potential sports team membership increased the potential of coercion. Conclusion: Introduction Over the past three decades a plethora of research has concentrated upon the factors involved in and the repercussions of sexual assault, victimisation and perpetration (Abbey, McAuslan, 2004). Sexual experiences and behaviours are often complex involving; moral and gender stereotyped beliefs, social learning, peer interaction and biological factors. An important part of maturity is developing appropriate sexual beliefs that enable the adolescent to control sexual urges and to manage the consequences when such urges are not controlled. Problems begin to arise when individuals apply pressure or force in a coercive manner in order to obtain sexual intercourse. Sexual coercion is persistent within society and both males and females serve as victims as well as perpetrators (Sigleman, Berry Wiles, 1984). However, more often than not offenders are young, male and anti-social (Ellis Walsh, 2000). A vast spectrum of research (Koss, Gidycz, Wisniewski, 1987, Forbes Adams Curtis, 2001, Warkentin Gidycz, 2007, Martà ­n, Vergeles, Acevedo, Sà ¡nchez Visa, 2005, Lacasse Mendelson, 2007) also suggests that a large proportion of sexually coercive behaviours occur within university settings. Some suggest that the sexually promiscuous environment promotes sexually coercive behaviours and attitudes resulting in a number of sexual assault and date rape offences (Douglas, Collins Warren, 1997, Brener, McMahon, Warren, Douglas, 1999, Koss, Gidycz, Wisniewski, 1987). Research using student samples also seems to suggest that males who play sports, use pornography, have hyper-masculine sex beliefs and mating strategies will report using and accepting sexually coercive behaviours (Martà ­n, Vergeles, Acevedo, Sà ¡nchez Visa, 2005, Lacasse Mendelson, 2007). Further problems arise with what constitutes sexual coercion and when does coercion become attempted rape or rape. Legal definitions are often confusing and broad, the general population usually define rape as vaginal, oral or anal intercourse or attempted intercourse against a person’s will or if the person is unable to give full consent (Humphrey Kahn, 2000; Abbey, BeShears, Clinton-Sherrod McAuslan, 2004). Sexual abuse which incorporates sexual coercion is generally defined as behaviour that covers a range of sex acts which includes physically forced sexual contact and verbally coercive intercourse. Due to the ambiguous definitions police reported prevalence often underestimates the problem (Senn, Desmarais, Verberg, Wood, 2000). Further to these issues some victims fail to realise that they are in fact themselves victims (Pollard, 1992). If the perpetrator is known to the victim they are often reluctant to label the incident as rape. There are also conflicting views to what constitutes ‘intercourse’. Sonenstein, Ku, Lindberg, Turner, Pleck, (1998) argued that men attribute vastly different definitions to the word ‘sex’ when compared to women. Bogart, Cecil, Wagstaff, Pinkerton, Abramson, (2000) and Sanders, Reinish (1999) both found that over half of their participants would not define oral sex as sex. Even more participants did not class an act to be ‘sex’ if one or both of those involved did not have an orgasm. As a consequence of these ambiguous definitions some sexual behaviours may not be perceived as sexual acts and both the victim and perpetrator may be under estimating the seriousness of some behaviours. Research in this subject area has tended to use large representative samples (Abbey et al. 2004). A smaller number of studies have used self reports to estimate the prevalence of sexual coercion. The majority of research has concentrated upon the student population as many studies have shown a generalised problem among university students (Abbey et al. 2004, Martin et al. 2005). Sexual abuse and coercive behaviours will arguably be prevalent in the student population as individuals are still trying to form their identities. Adolescents have powerful motives for sexual intercourse due to pressure from social stereotypes and peers as sex is often viewed as a male conquest. Sexual coercion is said to be a social problem that reflect the stereotypes portrayed by a sexist society (Brownmiller, 1975). Maskay and McCreary-Juhasz (1983) argue that most students will be pressured to engage in sexual activity by either internal or external forces. Arguably males are more likely to hold sexists attitudes and condone sexually coercive behaviours which may be why they are predominantly perpetrators (Monson, Langhinrichsen-Rohling,, Binderup, 2000). Female students have continuously been highlighted as being at high risk of coercion in to unwanted sexual behaviour (Mouzon, Battle, Clark, Coleman, Ogletree, 2005) as females aged 16 to 24 experience rape at a level four times higher than the general female population (Parrot, Cummings, Marchell Hofher, 1994). In a vast range of research that has been conducted with university students what became apparent is that rape perpetration ranges from 6% to 15%, sexual assault ranges from 22% to 57% and 85% of females reported that their date was a perpetrator of sexual coercion(Abbey et al. 2004). These varying estimates may be in part due to differing methodologies or the varying definitions of sexual coercion. However what remains clear is that sexual assault and coercion is a serious problem even if we only consider the lower estimates. Coupled with these estimates, 25-60% of male students admitted they would force a female to have sex if they thought they wouldn’t be caught (Russell, 1993, cited in Emmers Sommer, Allen, 1999). Despite a wide range of research in this area over the past decade it has become apparent that there are difficulties in eliciting reliable accounts of sexual coercion and therefore intercourse. Some participant may minimise the number of sexual partners where as in many societies young males exaggerate sexual experiences because it as seen as a measure of manhood (Boohene, 1991). As a whole sexual victimisation has been a serious problem on university campuses. Despite efforts from the universities highlighting the risks students put themselves at not much has changed and the prevalence of such behaviours has shown little fluctuation over this time period. It is important to note that sexual aggression varies greatly among different universities (Koss, et al.1987). It seems viable that in order to attempt to tackle this ongoing problem the factors or social situation that influence or exacerbate such behaviours need to be identified. All men are arguably exposed to similar social experiences, however only a small proportion of these go on to engage in sexually coercive behaviours. The question must be why does this minority conduct these behaviours and accept sexual coercive tactics, what are the mediating factors and how can it be prevented? The literature examining the use and acceptance of sexual coercion suggests that certain variables remain consistent (Emmers-Sommer, Allen, 1999). Despite over 47 variables being associated with sexual coercion (Frank, 1989) they generally fall in to one of two categories; psychological and physical pressure (Struckman-Johnson, 1988). Psychological takes the form of verbal pressure, where as physical involves threat of harm to an individual if they refuse to engage in intercourse. Koss (1989) referred to psychological as being implied force and physical as being explicit force. Several studies have concluded that verbal coercion is often the most commonly used coercive tactic (Mouzon et al. 2005). Within a university setting it was apparent in the majority (58.6%) of coercive incidents, the male carried on even though the female had stated ‘No’ (Muehlenhard Linton, 1986). Verbal coercion is a negative level of persuasion that can take the form of; blackmail, persuasion, lies, false promises, guilt or threats to end a relationship (Walner-Haugrud, 1995). Many males use verbal coercion as it leaves the victim with a lack of choices to pursue that don’t have severe social or physical consequences (Heise, Moore, Toubia, 1995). Sexual intercourse may actual seem like the easiest option in order to escape constant pressure or to avoid negative consequences including threats to a relationship (Livingston, Buddie, Testa VanZile-Tamsen, 2004). The anticipation of a negative reaction from their partner was significantly associated with a woman’s decreased ability to refuse sex and over 40% of females engaged in intercourse due to constant pressure (Koss, 1985) . However when females are seen to ‘give in’ to intercourse due to the social and emotional pressures it is debated whether this is true victimization (Muehlehard Peterson, 2004). Regardless of this viewpoint the presence of verbal coercion is consistent in dating relationships, 93% of coercive acts reported by females involved a male that was known to them (Testa Livingston,1999). With regard to university campuses, social circles constantly overlap thus increasing the likelihood the victim, her friends or acquaintances will now the perpetrator. Dating situation can often be ambiguous with pressure from societies expectation of gender stereotyped roles and traditional dating scripts. These expectations and pressures can often lead to attitudes of rape justifiability and victim willingness. Males are often viewed by a western society as being dominant and aggressive. Therefore some males want to uphold this view often resulting in hyper-masculinity. Malamuth, Linz, Heavey, Barnes, Aker (1995) argue the views of these males will be strengthened especially in a university setting. Their ‘Confluence model’ states that variables such as sexual promiscuity or hyper-masculinity will influence sexually coercive behaviour and attitudes. Some male’s think they are justified in being coercive towards their date especially if they the female accepted the date, they have paid for the date or the female invited him back to her residence (Feltey, Ainslie Geib, 1991). Such behaviours are justified as being acceptable as certain males believe because the female has ‘allowed’ him to take the ‘lead’ role then she must be willing to engage in intercourse or he is justified in pursuing intercourse without consent as she ‘owes’ him (Parrot, 1990). Surprisingly some females agree that a man is justified in having sex with a female against her will if she willingly goes back to his house (Muehlenhard, 1988). Even when dating scripts are reversed and the female initiates or pays for the date some males still perceive this as the female’s willingness to engage in intercourse. These males are likely to assume that females who initiate or take control are experienced or ‘easy’. The males described in these situations are more likely to blame the female if sex occurs, are more likely to endorse rape justifiable attitudes and are less likely to perceive that coercion took place (Parrot, 1990). Reassuringly, 98% of university students agreed that using coercion to obtain sex is not acceptable regardless of other dating factors (Cook, 1995). Some behaviours do not have the ambiguity of whether they are coercive or not for example the use of force, threat or weapons are unequivocal examples of sexual coercion. Koss et al. (1987) argued that over half of their student sample were sexual victimized and 6% stated they had been raped in the past year whilst at university. Fisher, Cullen, Turner (2000) reported much lower figures of around 11% for sexual victimization and 2% raped in the past 7 months. These differences could indicate a decline in sexually coercive behaviour however it may be more likely due to differing definitions of sexually coercive behaviours and the different time frames used. Taking even the lower estimates it appears that a significant proportion of students have endured some form of sexual coercion during a relatively small time frame. However research has continually highlighted that the number of reported incidents of sexual coercion by females will always out weight the number of self reports by males (Koss et al.1987). Therefore it appears that there are marked gendered differences in the way both sexes perceive and report sexually coercive behaviours. The gendered differences in attitudes towards sexual behaviour general highlight that males are more sexually permissive and more interested in casual sex and women tend to have an emotional tie (Forbes, Adam-Curtis, 2004). Despite some decline in these gender differences, the issue of casual sex remains the same. Males are twice as likely as females to approve of casual sex and four times as likely to think attractiveness is a sufficient enough reason to have sex (Feignbaum Weinstein, 1995). Males also believed it is ‘normal’ for intercourse to occur after eight dates whereas females argued it would be nearer to 12 (Cohen Shortland, 1996). This sample of male students may therefore have unrealistic dating scripts. Expecting intercourse to occur four dates sooner than females may result in the female perceiving the males advances as being sexually coercive whereas the male believe his behaviours are the next ‘logical’ step. Such differences in sexual expectations may be a major contributing factor to the discrepancies between recorded and self reported behaviours. Discrepancies may also be attributed to some men perpetrating multiple acts as recidivism rates are often low. Rubenzahl (1998) reported that within his student sample 29% reported being sexually coercive on more than five occasions. The underlying differences in attitudes towards sexual coercion may lie with the conditioning of males and females, and their assumed gender identity. Embracing the identity of being masculine or feminine will have an effect upon perceptions of appropriate or inappropriate behaviour, and the decisions regarding engaging in intercourse. As gender identities are diametrically opposed, society views real mean as those who have sex and women, who are ladies, do not (Muehlenhard, McCoy, 1991). Males who adopt this gender identity have more traditional values and expectation. As discussed previously, these males will ask for the date, pay for the date, initiate sex and ultimately endorse sexually coercive strategies. Such males are also more likely to believe that females engage in ‘Token Resistance’, in that they say no in order to preserve their feminine identity, even though they are willing to engage in sexual intercourse. Others believe that token resistance may actually be a change of intention rather than a self protective factor (Shortland, Hunter, 1995). Around 40% of college women admitted they had engaged in token resistance, even though they planned to have sexual intercourse (Shortland, Hunter, 1995) and 17% make regular practice of it (Muehlenhard Hollabaugh, 1988).Therefore, even if the female truly means ‘No’, a minority of males will still pursue intercourse as they perceive it to be the female being coy or bluffing to protect h er reputation. Given that males and females are expected, by the rules that govern society, to act in opposing ways and that some males believe because of these expectations, females say ‘no’ when they in fact mean ‘yes’, it is hardly surprising that coercive behaviours become problematic. Confusion for males will obviously arise when females they have previously engaged in sexual intercourse with have used token resistance. Problems will arise when the same male engages with other females, yet uses his previous experience as a rule of thumb. Some women use verbal and non verbal cues, along with the physical resistance to refuse sexual advances from a male. As discussed verbal cues are often confusing especially as ‘no’ can often mean ‘yes’. Consent is also usually signalled by doing nothing during sexual advances, therefore further issues may arise for the male in that lack of consent is not necessarily a spoken ‘no’. Men are also mo re likely to perceive a wide variety of non verbal, verbal and situational variables as cues for a female’s sexual interest (Koukounds, Letch, 2001). Non verbal cues are said to be the least direct and effective methods of resistance (VanWie, Gross, 2001). Environmental factors such as a college setting and, â€Å"perpetrator characteristics, personality and previous sexual experience enhance a man’s willingness to act upon his coercive beliefs and attitudes† (Berkowitz, Burkhart, Bourg, 1994 p.6). White, Donat, Humphrey’s (1995) suggest that it is not specific cognitive beliefs but negativity towards women that is associated with sexual coercion. Therefore holding supportive attitudes in the absence of other variables such as hostility may not contribute to sexual coercion. Attitudes of a coercive nature however do not just appear but they are in part due to socialisation. Attitudes are modelled and developed at home, school, by the media and our peers; they are also in part influenced by our own personality. Hostility towards females and sensation seeking is such aspects of personality that is linked towards sexual coercive behaviours (Berkowitz, 1992). Much of the sexual coercion literature has focused upon fraternity and sports team members with the majority suggesting that those who individuals who are associated with either group are more likely to commit sexual assault. This viewpoint has gained momentum within the popular media (Martin, Hummer, 1989) however from an academic perspective the results are mixed. Koss and Gains (1993) argue that both athletic membership and living in a fraternity were significantly related to the severity of the incident but only athletic membership was a significant predictor. However, Lackie and DeMan (1997) argues the opposite in that fraternity membership not athletic membership predicted sexual assault. One of the many reasons for this is that, some sports teams especially on modern university campuses are mixed sex or if they are single sex affiliated teams share transport and training resources. Also many fraternities do not represent the stereotypical view of hyper-masculine, alcohol fuelled environments and they actually promote equal rights and community service. However a number studies, (Boeringer,1999, Sawyer, Thompson, Chicorelli, 2002, Forbes, Adams-Curtis, Pakalka, White, 2006) have highlighted relationships between group memberships, acceptance of rape myths, objectification of women and admiration of violence. Each of these variables has been constantly related to sexual aggression and coercion. It is important however to understand that such attitudes are developmental and aggression towards females does not just manifest during college. Such attitudes develop throughout the life course and participation is sports, college experiences, the pressure from peers or male gender roles may reinforce these existing attitudes (Forbes, Adam-Curtis, 2001). Peers will provide justification and support for each other’s sexually aggressive tactics. Athletes were over responsible for 19% of sexual assaults despite only accounting for 3% of the overall university population (Crosset, Benedict, 1995). On the other hand self report questionnaires highlighted that sexual assault by members of athletic teams or fraternity memberships were no different than non members (Jackson, 1991). Closely tied in with the theory of masculinity is the role of males peers in socialisation and initiation of sexual beliefs (Brooks-Gunn, Furstenberd, 1989). ‘Frat’ membership is good reflection of the pressure applied to peers to hold narrow masculine views (Senn, Desmarais, Verberg, Wood, 2000). The link between ‘frat’ houses, sports team and sexual coercion may be a reflection of the psychological characteristics of the group such as hostility and dominance over women not the purpose of the group itself that is associated with sexual coercion. Further variables such as pornography usage have been linked to sexual assault and sexual coercion. Within some student populations and arguably some ‘frat’ houses or university halls of residence social affairs involve pornographic entertainment which may further reinforce sexually aggressive behaviour. The concern surrounding pornography usage is that substantial research (Williams, Cooper, Howell, Yuille, Paulhus, 2009) argues it promotes sexual misbehaviour. Such effects are arguably stronger when the exposure is self induced (e.g. DVD’s and internet based searches) rather than involuntary (e.g. pop ups and spam emails). Experimental studies (Williams et al. 2009) seem to suggest that exposing males to pornography increases fantasies, willingness to rape and acceptance of rape myths. Malamuth, Neil, Koss, (2000) argue that there is an association between pornography usage and sexually aggressive behaviours in that those who had higher levels of viewing were at a greater risk for being sexually aggressive. However they also suggest that those males who are already aggressive in nature are at a far greater risk than those who are not aggressive. Boeringer (1994) had previously concluded that males exposed frequently to violent pornography were six times more likely to report rape supporting attitudes and behaviours compared to a sample with low exposure. Exposure to pornography may reinforce the notion that having multiple partners is normal and having a steady relationship in undesirable. Pornography also fails to deal with real life relationship problems. Some issues such as affection, communication, dating scripts or the consequences of promiscuous sexual behaviour are avoided. Viewing material of this nature especially on a frequent basis exposes the individual to perverted sex acts that are otherwise unimaginable and instead are regarded as exciting thus desensitising the individual to the content. Some 12% of males imitated pornography during a sexually abusive incident (Bergen, Raquel Kennedy, 2000). It is important however to remember that a number of individuals watch pornography on a regular basis and no not engage in sex crimes. It is important however to argue that the relationship between pornography and sexual coercion is not simply due to levels of exposure and moderating factors must be considered. The combination of peers with attitudes that justify coercion, pornography usage and hyper-masculinity and an appreciation of violence often found in some sports teams may all interact and contribute to sexual coercion. The age at which individuals have their first sexual experience and the number of partners they have had may lead to more coercive attitudes and behaviours. Factors such as impersonal sex and lack of intimacy are associated with both promiscuity and sexual coercion. A number of studies (Forbes et al. 2001, Senn at al. 2000, Martin et al. 2005) have found those that had admitted to endorsing or perpetrating sexual coercion had more sexual partners and early age of first intercourse than a non coercive sample. Those males that are sexually coercive and have had a high number of partners will be active daters and the frequency of their sexual contact can increases their likelihood to commit sexually coercive acts (Byers Eno, 1991). In summary, â€Å"the more sexually the young man, the longer he is active and the greater number of sexual partners the more likely some assaultive behaviour will occur at least once† (White Koss, 1993 p.144 ). It is apparent that a number of different variables can contribute to the acceptance and reinforcement of sexually coercive behaviours. The complexity of this relationship can arguably only be understood by taking human evolution and natural selection into account. In line with previous research evolutionary theory argues sexual coercion occurs in aggressive males who are more eager to mate, are sexually assertive and are less discriminative when choosing a mate (Thornhill Palmer, 2000). Those male with a high sex drive that are thwarted by a female when they are sexually aroused may respond in a sexually coercive manner (Kanin, 1969). Females on the other hand have different reproductive strategies as they are more selective because they contribute more long term effort to the reproduction of the offspring (McKibbin, Shackelford, Goetz, Starratt, 2008). Such difference may be attributed to the gender differences in attitudes towards casual sex and some males desire to have multiple partners. Evolutionary psychologists propose a number of different explanations of individual difference in sexual coercion. Those males that have low parental investment due to the nature of their unstable environment such as university may trigger development patterns leading to a high mating effort. These individuals may have multiple partners due to their desire for greater investment in reproduction. This potential for reproduction ‘pays off’ as a greater number of partners may result in a greater number of offspring. Such behaviour patterns are supported by risk taking strategies that are apparent in sexually coercive behaviour. Adaption theory suggests that sexual coercion is a conditional strategy. Its main argument is that those males who have low mating value and have failed with non sexually coercive tactics use conditional mating strategies such as sexual coercion in order to improve their number of sexual partners because these behaviours are now adaptive (Gladden, Sisco, Figueredo, 2008). Further arguments surround the notion that sexual coercion is a by-product of trait differences between genders to ensure that males do not miss sexual opportunities. Selection for a greater variety in sexual encounters (casual sex) by males and for some to act aggressively could result in sexual coercion as a side effect of these traits. From an evolutionary perspective those individuals that adapt behaviour to context adaptive problems (domain specific adaptive mechanisms) tend to out compete rivals that pursue invariant behaviour tactics. It may be in these specific context cues trigger coercive behaviours such that a male who was coercive as a by product of an interest in casual sex maybe also be high in aggression and be willing to use force as they lack normal inhibitions. On the contrary those males that use coercion because they have low status may have normal inhibitions against forcing women however may alter these inhibitions when the female acts inappropriately according to gender stereotypes i.e. initiates the date or invites him back to her home. Based on this argument it appears that different predictors of sexual coercion will correlate preferentially with different types of offences. By expanding this research to consider more fundamental evolutionary constructs such as mating effort and sex strategies, it may be possible to think about sexual coerciveness theoretically. Hypothesis It is predicted that a higher score on a measure of self-reported sexually aggressive tactics will be positively correlated with greater impulsivity, more stereotyped sexual attitudes, active sports team participation, greater pornography use, higher levels of mating effort and residing within university halls of residence. It is further predicted that males will believe using sexual coercive behaviours is more acceptable than females and they will admit to higher levels or perpetration than females. Method Design The study will be a within-subjects correlational study, and examines the use and acceptance of sexually coercive tactics among university students. The study will use higher self-rated scores on measures of sexual coercion as the criterion variable and sexual experience, impulsivity-sensation seeking, sexual beliefs and whether the participant lives in halls, is a member of a sports team, if they use pornography and mating effort as the predictor variables. Participants Participants were recruited via opportunistic sampling around various public areas of a University campus and online via a social networking website. Participants in this study composed of University students ranging from first years to postgraduate level. A total of 130 students participated in the study 73 male and 57 female. The participants included in the analyses were aged between 18 and 26 the overall mean age was 22.2 years (SD= 1.58). Furthermore about 43 % were said to be in a long term relationship, 43 % dated casually, 15 % didn’t date and only2 % were married or engaged. The vast majority of participants (96 %) indicated they were heterosexual, with 2 % being homosexual and 1 % being bi sexual. Materials Within the questionnaire battery participants were asked to provide demographic information which included; gender, age, the age at which participants willingly has sexual intercourse, the number of sexual partners they have had, whether they lived in halls of residence, whether they were part of a single or mixed sex sports team, and whether they used pornography. Further measures include: The SES Scale (sexual experiences scale, Koss Oros, 1982). A 10 item scale was used to measure the participant’s involvement in acts of sexual coercion. From this measure it is possible to collect data regarding four different types of sexual aggression (sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted rape and rape). As this scale is currently devised for male participants a revised version for females will created simply by changing the use of male to female. This will be altered as it may be possible for some females to use sexually coercive behaviours. The respondents answer ‘yes’ of ‘no’ to a series of items in a self report format. With regard to rape it will not be possible for women participants to respond ‘yes’ however the scale will be able to identify other sexually coercive behaviours The measure is used to detect sexual assault even when the perpetrator is unaware that his behaviour constitutes a crime. The SES is one of the most frequently used measures of assessing sexually aggressive behaviours and reliability and validity are very good. The SES was found to be of good internal consistency reliability with a Cronbach alpha =.89, and has re-test reliability of .93 (Koss Gidycz, 1985) and validity of .61(Koss Gidycz, 1985). The scale has been used with women were the internal consistency was found to be .74(Koss Gidycz, 1985). The Impulsive Sensation Seeking subscale of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ-ImpSS; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joirement, Teta, Kraft, 1993). A 19 item impulsivity sensation seeking subscale requires participants to answer true or false to whether they felt the statements were descriptive of themselves. Higher scores indicate participants who have higher levels of sensation seeking. Research has found the scale has a Cronbach alpha of .77 and a test retest reliability of .80 (Zuckerman, 2002). The Sexual Strategies Questionnaire (SSQ Struckman- Johnson and Struckman-Johnson, 1991). Participants are asked to consider 10 different items in relation to a date scenario vignette. Item are devised to measure acceptability of different sexually coercive tactics. Within the scale there are 10 levels of sexual coercion, the least severe being use of isolation (item 1) ranging to moderately severe, alcohol used as a specific tactic (item 6) and most severely the use of Understanding Predictors of Sexually Coercive Behaviour Understanding Predictors of Sexually Coercive Behaviour Abstract Purpose: In order to end or at least improve education and reduce sexual coercion, it is crucial to identify the variables that play a part in such behaviour. Method: One hundred and thirty students (57 female and 73 males) ranging in age from 18 to 26 were randomly approached at one of three university campuses and completed a questionnaire battery. Results: Overall 91.7% of respondents reported to have never been sexually coercive. Logistic regression analysis, using a dichotomised criterion of coercion, established that frequent pornography and potential sports team membership increased the potential of coercion. Conclusion: Introduction Over the past three decades a plethora of research has concentrated upon the factors involved in and the repercussions of sexual assault, victimisation and perpetration (Abbey, McAuslan, 2004). Sexual experiences and behaviours are often complex involving; moral and gender stereotyped beliefs, social learning, peer interaction and biological factors. An important part of maturity is developing appropriate sexual beliefs that enable the adolescent to control sexual urges and to manage the consequences when such urges are not controlled. Problems begin to arise when individuals apply pressure or force in a coercive manner in order to obtain sexual intercourse. Sexual coercion is persistent within society and both males and females serve as victims as well as perpetrators (Sigleman, Berry Wiles, 1984). However, more often than not offenders are young, male and anti-social (Ellis Walsh, 2000). A vast spectrum of research (Koss, Gidycz, Wisniewski, 1987, Forbes Adams Curtis, 2001, Warkentin Gidycz, 2007, Martà ­n, Vergeles, Acevedo, Sà ¡nchez Visa, 2005, Lacasse Mendelson, 2007) also suggests that a large proportion of sexually coercive behaviours occur within university settings. Some suggest that the sexually promiscuous environment promotes sexually coercive behaviours and attitudes resulting in a number of sexual assault and date rape offences (Douglas, Collins Warren, 1997, Brener, McMahon, Warren, Douglas, 1999, Koss, Gidycz, Wisniewski, 1987). Research using student samples also seems to suggest that males who play sports, use pornography, have hyper-masculine sex beliefs and mating strategies will report using and accepting sexually coercive behaviours (Martà ­n, Vergeles, Acevedo, Sà ¡nchez Visa, 2005, Lacasse Mendelson, 2007). Further problems arise with what constitutes sexual coercion and when does coercion become attempted rape or rape. Legal definitions are often confusing and broad, the general population usually define rape as vaginal, oral or anal intercourse or attempted intercourse against a person’s will or if the person is unable to give full consent (Humphrey Kahn, 2000; Abbey, BeShears, Clinton-Sherrod McAuslan, 2004). Sexual abuse which incorporates sexual coercion is generally defined as behaviour that covers a range of sex acts which includes physically forced sexual contact and verbally coercive intercourse. Due to the ambiguous definitions police reported prevalence often underestimates the problem (Senn, Desmarais, Verberg, Wood, 2000). Further to these issues some victims fail to realise that they are in fact themselves victims (Pollard, 1992). If the perpetrator is known to the victim they are often reluctant to label the incident as rape. There are also conflicting views to what constitutes ‘intercourse’. Sonenstein, Ku, Lindberg, Turner, Pleck, (1998) argued that men attribute vastly different definitions to the word ‘sex’ when compared to women. Bogart, Cecil, Wagstaff, Pinkerton, Abramson, (2000) and Sanders, Reinish (1999) both found that over half of their participants would not define oral sex as sex. Even more participants did not class an act to be ‘sex’ if one or both of those involved did not have an orgasm. As a consequence of these ambiguous definitions some sexual behaviours may not be perceived as sexual acts and both the victim and perpetrator may be under estimating the seriousness of some behaviours. Research in this subject area has tended to use large representative samples (Abbey et al. 2004). A smaller number of studies have used self reports to estimate the prevalence of sexual coercion. The majority of research has concentrated upon the student population as many studies have shown a generalised problem among university students (Abbey et al. 2004, Martin et al. 2005). Sexual abuse and coercive behaviours will arguably be prevalent in the student population as individuals are still trying to form their identities. Adolescents have powerful motives for sexual intercourse due to pressure from social stereotypes and peers as sex is often viewed as a male conquest. Sexual coercion is said to be a social problem that reflect the stereotypes portrayed by a sexist society (Brownmiller, 1975). Maskay and McCreary-Juhasz (1983) argue that most students will be pressured to engage in sexual activity by either internal or external forces. Arguably males are more likely to hold sexists attitudes and condone sexually coercive behaviours which may be why they are predominantly perpetrators (Monson, Langhinrichsen-Rohling,, Binderup, 2000). Female students have continuously been highlighted as being at high risk of coercion in to unwanted sexual behaviour (Mouzon, Battle, Clark, Coleman, Ogletree, 2005) as females aged 16 to 24 experience rape at a level four times higher than the general female population (Parrot, Cummings, Marchell Hofher, 1994). In a vast range of research that has been conducted with university students what became apparent is that rape perpetration ranges from 6% to 15%, sexual assault ranges from 22% to 57% and 85% of females reported that their date was a perpetrator of sexual coercion(Abbey et al. 2004). These varying estimates may be in part due to differing methodologies or the varying definitions of sexual coercion. However what remains clear is that sexual assault and coercion is a serious problem even if we only consider the lower estimates. Coupled with these estimates, 25-60% of male students admitted they would force a female to have sex if they thought they wouldn’t be caught (Russell, 1993, cited in Emmers Sommer, Allen, 1999). Despite a wide range of research in this area over the past decade it has become apparent that there are difficulties in eliciting reliable accounts of sexual coercion and therefore intercourse. Some participant may minimise the number of sexual partners where as in many societies young males exaggerate sexual experiences because it as seen as a measure of manhood (Boohene, 1991). As a whole sexual victimisation has been a serious problem on university campuses. Despite efforts from the universities highlighting the risks students put themselves at not much has changed and the prevalence of such behaviours has shown little fluctuation over this time period. It is important to note that sexual aggression varies greatly among different universities (Koss, et al.1987). It seems viable that in order to attempt to tackle this ongoing problem the factors or social situation that influence or exacerbate such behaviours need to be identified. All men are arguably exposed to similar social experiences, however only a small proportion of these go on to engage in sexually coercive behaviours. The question must be why does this minority conduct these behaviours and accept sexual coercive tactics, what are the mediating factors and how can it be prevented? The literature examining the use and acceptance of sexual coercion suggests that certain variables remain consistent (Emmers-Sommer, Allen, 1999). Despite over 47 variables being associated with sexual coercion (Frank, 1989) they generally fall in to one of two categories; psychological and physical pressure (Struckman-Johnson, 1988). Psychological takes the form of verbal pressure, where as physical involves threat of harm to an individual if they refuse to engage in intercourse. Koss (1989) referred to psychological as being implied force and physical as being explicit force. Several studies have concluded that verbal coercion is often the most commonly used coercive tactic (Mouzon et al. 2005). Within a university setting it was apparent in the majority (58.6%) of coercive incidents, the male carried on even though the female had stated ‘No’ (Muehlenhard Linton, 1986). Verbal coercion is a negative level of persuasion that can take the form of; blackmail, persuasion, lies, false promises, guilt or threats to end a relationship (Walner-Haugrud, 1995). Many males use verbal coercion as it leaves the victim with a lack of choices to pursue that don’t have severe social or physical consequences (Heise, Moore, Toubia, 1995). Sexual intercourse may actual seem like the easiest option in order to escape constant pressure or to avoid negative consequences including threats to a relationship (Livingston, Buddie, Testa VanZile-Tamsen, 2004). The anticipation of a negative reaction from their partner was significantly associated with a woman’s decreased ability to refuse sex and over 40% of females engaged in intercourse due to constant pressure (Koss, 1985) . However when females are seen to ‘give in’ to intercourse due to the social and emotional pressures it is debated whether this is true victimization (Muehlehard Peterson, 2004). Regardless of this viewpoint the presence of verbal coercion is consistent in dating relationships, 93% of coercive acts reported by females involved a male that was known to them (Testa Livingston,1999). With regard to university campuses, social circles constantly overlap thus increasing the likelihood the victim, her friends or acquaintances will now the perpetrator. Dating situation can often be ambiguous with pressure from societies expectation of gender stereotyped roles and traditional dating scripts. These expectations and pressures can often lead to attitudes of rape justifiability and victim willingness. Males are often viewed by a western society as being dominant and aggressive. Therefore some males want to uphold this view often resulting in hyper-masculinity. Malamuth, Linz, Heavey, Barnes, Aker (1995) argue the views of these males will be strengthened especially in a university setting. Their ‘Confluence model’ states that variables such as sexual promiscuity or hyper-masculinity will influence sexually coercive behaviour and attitudes. Some male’s think they are justified in being coercive towards their date especially if they the female accepted the date, they have paid for the date or the female invited him back to her residence (Feltey, Ainslie Geib, 1991). Such behaviours are justified as being acceptable as certain males believe because the female has ‘allowed’ him to take the ‘lead’ role then she must be willing to engage in intercourse or he is justified in pursuing intercourse without consent as she ‘owes’ him (Parrot, 1990). Surprisingly some females agree that a man is justified in having sex with a female against her will if she willingly goes back to his house (Muehlenhard, 1988). Even when dating scripts are reversed and the female initiates or pays for the date some males still perceive this as the female’s willingness to engage in intercourse. These males are likely to assume that females who initiate or take control are experienced or ‘easy’. The males described in these situations are more likely to blame the female if sex occurs, are more likely to endorse rape justifiable attitudes and are less likely to perceive that coercion took place (Parrot, 1990). Reassuringly, 98% of university students agreed that using coercion to obtain sex is not acceptable regardless of other dating factors (Cook, 1995). Some behaviours do not have the ambiguity of whether they are coercive or not for example the use of force, threat or weapons are unequivocal examples of sexual coercion. Koss et al. (1987) argued that over half of their student sample were sexual victimized and 6% stated they had been raped in the past year whilst at university. Fisher, Cullen, Turner (2000) reported much lower figures of around 11% for sexual victimization and 2% raped in the past 7 months. These differences could indicate a decline in sexually coercive behaviour however it may be more likely due to differing definitions of sexually coercive behaviours and the different time frames used. Taking even the lower estimates it appears that a significant proportion of students have endured some form of sexual coercion during a relatively small time frame. However research has continually highlighted that the number of reported incidents of sexual coercion by females will always out weight the number of self reports by males (Koss et al.1987). Therefore it appears that there are marked gendered differences in the way both sexes perceive and report sexually coercive behaviours. The gendered differences in attitudes towards sexual behaviour general highlight that males are more sexually permissive and more interested in casual sex and women tend to have an emotional tie (Forbes, Adam-Curtis, 2004). Despite some decline in these gender differences, the issue of casual sex remains the same. Males are twice as likely as females to approve of casual sex and four times as likely to think attractiveness is a sufficient enough reason to have sex (Feignbaum Weinstein, 1995). Males also believed it is ‘normal’ for intercourse to occur after eight dates whereas females argued it would be nearer to 12 (Cohen Shortland, 1996). This sample of male students may therefore have unrealistic dating scripts. Expecting intercourse to occur four dates sooner than females may result in the female perceiving the males advances as being sexually coercive whereas the male believe his behaviours are the next ‘logical’ step. Such differences in sexual expectations may be a major contributing factor to the discrepancies between recorded and self reported behaviours. Discrepancies may also be attributed to some men perpetrating multiple acts as recidivism rates are often low. Rubenzahl (1998) reported that within his student sample 29% reported being sexually coercive on more than five occasions. The underlying differences in attitudes towards sexual coercion may lie with the conditioning of males and females, and their assumed gender identity. Embracing the identity of being masculine or feminine will have an effect upon perceptions of appropriate or inappropriate behaviour, and the decisions regarding engaging in intercourse. As gender identities are diametrically opposed, society views real mean as those who have sex and women, who are ladies, do not (Muehlenhard, McCoy, 1991). Males who adopt this gender identity have more traditional values and expectation. As discussed previously, these males will ask for the date, pay for the date, initiate sex and ultimately endorse sexually coercive strategies. Such males are also more likely to believe that females engage in ‘Token Resistance’, in that they say no in order to preserve their feminine identity, even though they are willing to engage in sexual intercourse. Others believe that token resistance may actually be a change of intention rather than a self protective factor (Shortland, Hunter, 1995). Around 40% of college women admitted they had engaged in token resistance, even though they planned to have sexual intercourse (Shortland, Hunter, 1995) and 17% make regular practice of it (Muehlenhard Hollabaugh, 1988).Therefore, even if the female truly means ‘No’, a minority of males will still pursue intercourse as they perceive it to be the female being coy or bluffing to protect h er reputation. Given that males and females are expected, by the rules that govern society, to act in opposing ways and that some males believe because of these expectations, females say ‘no’ when they in fact mean ‘yes’, it is hardly surprising that coercive behaviours become problematic. Confusion for males will obviously arise when females they have previously engaged in sexual intercourse with have used token resistance. Problems will arise when the same male engages with other females, yet uses his previous experience as a rule of thumb. Some women use verbal and non verbal cues, along with the physical resistance to refuse sexual advances from a male. As discussed verbal cues are often confusing especially as ‘no’ can often mean ‘yes’. Consent is also usually signalled by doing nothing during sexual advances, therefore further issues may arise for the male in that lack of consent is not necessarily a spoken ‘no’. Men are also mo re likely to perceive a wide variety of non verbal, verbal and situational variables as cues for a female’s sexual interest (Koukounds, Letch, 2001). Non verbal cues are said to be the least direct and effective methods of resistance (VanWie, Gross, 2001). Environmental factors such as a college setting and, â€Å"perpetrator characteristics, personality and previous sexual experience enhance a man’s willingness to act upon his coercive beliefs and attitudes† (Berkowitz, Burkhart, Bourg, 1994 p.6). White, Donat, Humphrey’s (1995) suggest that it is not specific cognitive beliefs but negativity towards women that is associated with sexual coercion. Therefore holding supportive attitudes in the absence of other variables such as hostility may not contribute to sexual coercion. Attitudes of a coercive nature however do not just appear but they are in part due to socialisation. Attitudes are modelled and developed at home, school, by the media and our peers; they are also in part influenced by our own personality. Hostility towards females and sensation seeking is such aspects of personality that is linked towards sexual coercive behaviours (Berkowitz, 1992). Much of the sexual coercion literature has focused upon fraternity and sports team members with the majority suggesting that those who individuals who are associated with either group are more likely to commit sexual assault. This viewpoint has gained momentum within the popular media (Martin, Hummer, 1989) however from an academic perspective the results are mixed. Koss and Gains (1993) argue that both athletic membership and living in a fraternity were significantly related to the severity of the incident but only athletic membership was a significant predictor. However, Lackie and DeMan (1997) argues the opposite in that fraternity membership not athletic membership predicted sexual assault. One of the many reasons for this is that, some sports teams especially on modern university campuses are mixed sex or if they are single sex affiliated teams share transport and training resources. Also many fraternities do not represent the stereotypical view of hyper-masculine, alcohol fuelled environments and they actually promote equal rights and community service. However a number studies, (Boeringer,1999, Sawyer, Thompson, Chicorelli, 2002, Forbes, Adams-Curtis, Pakalka, White, 2006) have highlighted relationships between group memberships, acceptance of rape myths, objectification of women and admiration of violence. Each of these variables has been constantly related to sexual aggression and coercion. It is important however to understand that such attitudes are developmental and aggression towards females does not just manifest during college. Such attitudes develop throughout the life course and participation is sports, college experiences, the pressure from peers or male gender roles may reinforce these existing attitudes (Forbes, Adam-Curtis, 2001). Peers will provide justification and support for each other’s sexually aggressive tactics. Athletes were over responsible for 19% of sexual assaults despite only accounting for 3% of the overall university population (Crosset, Benedict, 1995). On the other hand self report questionnaires highlighted that sexual assault by members of athletic teams or fraternity memberships were no different than non members (Jackson, 1991). Closely tied in with the theory of masculinity is the role of males peers in socialisation and initiation of sexual beliefs (Brooks-Gunn, Furstenberd, 1989). ‘Frat’ membership is good reflection of the pressure applied to peers to hold narrow masculine views (Senn, Desmarais, Verberg, Wood, 2000). The link between ‘frat’ houses, sports team and sexual coercion may be a reflection of the psychological characteristics of the group such as hostility and dominance over women not the purpose of the group itself that is associated with sexual coercion. Further variables such as pornography usage have been linked to sexual assault and sexual coercion. Within some student populations and arguably some ‘frat’ houses or university halls of residence social affairs involve pornographic entertainment which may further reinforce sexually aggressive behaviour. The concern surrounding pornography usage is that substantial research (Williams, Cooper, Howell, Yuille, Paulhus, 2009) argues it promotes sexual misbehaviour. Such effects are arguably stronger when the exposure is self induced (e.g. DVD’s and internet based searches) rather than involuntary (e.g. pop ups and spam emails). Experimental studies (Williams et al. 2009) seem to suggest that exposing males to pornography increases fantasies, willingness to rape and acceptance of rape myths. Malamuth, Neil, Koss, (2000) argue that there is an association between pornography usage and sexually aggressive behaviours in that those who had higher levels of viewing were at a greater risk for being sexually aggressive. However they also suggest that those males who are already aggressive in nature are at a far greater risk than those who are not aggressive. Boeringer (1994) had previously concluded that males exposed frequently to violent pornography were six times more likely to report rape supporting attitudes and behaviours compared to a sample with low exposure. Exposure to pornography may reinforce the notion that having multiple partners is normal and having a steady relationship in undesirable. Pornography also fails to deal with real life relationship problems. Some issues such as affection, communication, dating scripts or the consequences of promiscuous sexual behaviour are avoided. Viewing material of this nature especially on a frequent basis exposes the individual to perverted sex acts that are otherwise unimaginable and instead are regarded as exciting thus desensitising the individual to the content. Some 12% of males imitated pornography during a sexually abusive incident (Bergen, Raquel Kennedy, 2000). It is important however to remember that a number of individuals watch pornography on a regular basis and no not engage in sex crimes. It is important however to argue that the relationship between pornography and sexual coercion is not simply due to levels of exposure and moderating factors must be considered. The combination of peers with attitudes that justify coercion, pornography usage and hyper-masculinity and an appreciation of violence often found in some sports teams may all interact and contribute to sexual coercion. The age at which individuals have their first sexual experience and the number of partners they have had may lead to more coercive attitudes and behaviours. Factors such as impersonal sex and lack of intimacy are associated with both promiscuity and sexual coercion. A number of studies (Forbes et al. 2001, Senn at al. 2000, Martin et al. 2005) have found those that had admitted to endorsing or perpetrating sexual coercion had more sexual partners and early age of first intercourse than a non coercive sample. Those males that are sexually coercive and have had a high number of partners will be active daters and the frequency of their sexual contact can increases their likelihood to commit sexually coercive acts (Byers Eno, 1991). In summary, â€Å"the more sexually the young man, the longer he is active and the greater number of sexual partners the more likely some assaultive behaviour will occur at least once† (White Koss, 1993 p.144 ). It is apparent that a number of different variables can contribute to the acceptance and reinforcement of sexually coercive behaviours. The complexity of this relationship can arguably only be understood by taking human evolution and natural selection into account. In line with previous research evolutionary theory argues sexual coercion occurs in aggressive males who are more eager to mate, are sexually assertive and are less discriminative when choosing a mate (Thornhill Palmer, 2000). Those male with a high sex drive that are thwarted by a female when they are sexually aroused may respond in a sexually coercive manner (Kanin, 1969). Females on the other hand have different reproductive strategies as they are more selective because they contribute more long term effort to the reproduction of the offspring (McKibbin, Shackelford, Goetz, Starratt, 2008). Such difference may be attributed to the gender differences in attitudes towards casual sex and some males desire to have multiple partners. Evolutionary psychologists propose a number of different explanations of individual difference in sexual coercion. Those males that have low parental investment due to the nature of their unstable environment such as university may trigger development patterns leading to a high mating effort. These individuals may have multiple partners due to their desire for greater investment in reproduction. This potential for reproduction ‘pays off’ as a greater number of partners may result in a greater number of offspring. Such behaviour patterns are supported by risk taking strategies that are apparent in sexually coercive behaviour. Adaption theory suggests that sexual coercion is a conditional strategy. Its main argument is that those males who have low mating value and have failed with non sexually coercive tactics use conditional mating strategies such as sexual coercion in order to improve their number of sexual partners because these behaviours are now adaptive (Gladden, Sisco, Figueredo, 2008). Further arguments surround the notion that sexual coercion is a by-product of trait differences between genders to ensure that males do not miss sexual opportunities. Selection for a greater variety in sexual encounters (casual sex) by males and for some to act aggressively could result in sexual coercion as a side effect of these traits. From an evolutionary perspective those individuals that adapt behaviour to context adaptive problems (domain specific adaptive mechanisms) tend to out compete rivals that pursue invariant behaviour tactics. It may be in these specific context cues trigger coercive behaviours such that a male who was coercive as a by product of an interest in casual sex maybe also be high in aggression and be willing to use force as they lack normal inhibitions. On the contrary those males that use coercion because they have low status may have normal inhibitions against forcing women however may alter these inhibitions when the female acts inappropriately according to gender stereotypes i.e. initiates the date or invites him back to her home. Based on this argument it appears that different predictors of sexual coercion will correlate preferentially with different types of offences. By expanding this research to consider more fundamental evolutionary constructs such as mating effort and sex strategies, it may be possible to think about sexual coerciveness theoretically. Hypothesis It is predicted that a higher score on a measure of self-reported sexually aggressive tactics will be positively correlated with greater impulsivity, more stereotyped sexual attitudes, active sports team participation, greater pornography use, higher levels of mating effort and residing within university halls of residence. It is further predicted that males will believe using sexual coercive behaviours is more acceptable than females and they will admit to higher levels or perpetration than females. Method Design The study will be a within-subjects correlational study, and examines the use and acceptance of sexually coercive tactics among university students. The study will use higher self-rated scores on measures of sexual coercion as the criterion variable and sexual experience, impulsivity-sensation seeking, sexual beliefs and whether the participant lives in halls, is a member of a sports team, if they use pornography and mating effort as the predictor variables. Participants Participants were recruited via opportunistic sampling around various public areas of a University campus and online via a social networking website. Participants in this study composed of University students ranging from first years to postgraduate level. A total of 130 students participated in the study 73 male and 57 female. The participants included in the analyses were aged between 18 and 26 the overall mean age was 22.2 years (SD= 1.58). Furthermore about 43 % were said to be in a long term relationship, 43 % dated casually, 15 % didn’t date and only2 % were married or engaged. The vast majority of participants (96 %) indicated they were heterosexual, with 2 % being homosexual and 1 % being bi sexual. Materials Within the questionnaire battery participants were asked to provide demographic information which included; gender, age, the age at which participants willingly has sexual intercourse, the number of sexual partners they have had, whether they lived in halls of residence, whether they were part of a single or mixed sex sports team, and whether they used pornography. Further measures include: The SES Scale (sexual experiences scale, Koss Oros, 1982). A 10 item scale was used to measure the participant’s involvement in acts of sexual coercion. From this measure it is possible to collect data regarding four different types of sexual aggression (sexual contact, sexual coercion, attempted rape and rape). As this scale is currently devised for male participants a revised version for females will created simply by changing the use of male to female. This will be altered as it may be possible for some females to use sexually coercive behaviours. The respondents answer ‘yes’ of ‘no’ to a series of items in a self report format. With regard to rape it will not be possible for women participants to respond ‘yes’ however the scale will be able to identify other sexually coercive behaviours The measure is used to detect sexual assault even when the perpetrator is unaware that his behaviour constitutes a crime. The SES is one of the most frequently used measures of assessing sexually aggressive behaviours and reliability and validity are very good. The SES was found to be of good internal consistency reliability with a Cronbach alpha =.89, and has re-test reliability of .93 (Koss Gidycz, 1985) and validity of .61(Koss Gidycz, 1985). The scale has been used with women were the internal consistency was found to be .74(Koss Gidycz, 1985). The Impulsive Sensation Seeking subscale of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ-ImpSS; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joirement, Teta, Kraft, 1993). A 19 item impulsivity sensation seeking subscale requires participants to answer true or false to whether they felt the statements were descriptive of themselves. Higher scores indicate participants who have higher levels of sensation seeking. Research has found the scale has a Cronbach alpha of .77 and a test retest reliability of .80 (Zuckerman, 2002). The Sexual Strategies Questionnaire (SSQ Struckman- Johnson and Struckman-Johnson, 1991). Participants are asked to consider 10 different items in relation to a date scenario vignette. Item are devised to measure acceptability of different sexually coercive tactics. Within the scale there are 10 levels of sexual coercion, the least severe being use of isolation (item 1) ranging to moderately severe, alcohol used as a specific tactic (item 6) and most severely the use of